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Dissolution in politics is when a state, institution, nation, or administrative regiondissolves or ceases to exist, usually separating into two or more entities, or beingannexed. This can be carried out througharmed conflict,legal means,diplomacy, or a combination of any or all of the three. It is similar todissolution in the legal sense.
It is not to be confused withsecession, where a state, institution, nation, or administrative region leaves; norfederalisation where the structure changes but is not dissolved. There have been several dissolutions in history, while others have been proposed or advanced as hypotheticals.
In 1918, thedissolution of Austria-Hungary was a major geopolitical event that occurred as a result of the growth of internal social contradictions and the separation of different parts ofAustria-Hungary. The reason for the collapse of the state wasWorld War I, the 1918 crop failure and the economic crisis.[1]
On October 17, 1918, theHungarian Parliament terminated the union with Austria and declared the independence of the country,Czechoslovakia was formed on October 28, followed by the emergence of theState of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs on October 29. On November 3, theWest Ukrainian People's Republic declared independence; on November 6, Poland was re-established inKrakow. Also during the collapse of the empire, theRepublic of Tarnobrzeg, theHutsul Republic, theLemko Republic, theKomancza Republic, theRepublic of Prekmurje, theHungarian Soviet Republic, theSlovak Soviet Republic, theBanat Republic and theItalian Regency of Carnaro arose.[1]
The remaining territories inhabited by divided peoples fell into the composition of existing or newly formed states. Legally, the collapse of the empire was formalized in theTreaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye withAustria, which also acted as a peace treaty after the First World War, and in theTreaty of Trianon withHungary.[1]
Thedissolution of Czechoslovakia took effect on 1 January 1993 and was the self-determined split of thefederal republic ofCzechoslovakia into the independent countries of theCzech Republic andSlovakia. Both mirrored theCzech Socialist Republic and theSlovak Socialist Republic, which had been created in 1969 as the constituent states of theCzech and Slovak Federative Republic.
On 22 July 1990 a law was passed recreating thenew states of the formerEast Germany, whichwere dissolved by theEast German government in 1952. The states are:Brandenburg,Mecklenburg-Vorpommern,Saxony,Saxony-Anhalt andThuringia. The law was to take effect on 14 October 1990.
On 31 August 1990 the Unification Treaty set an accession date of October 3 (modifying the State Creation Law to come into effect on that date). The Unification Treaty declared that (with few exceptions) at accession the laws ofEast Germany would be replaced overnight by those ofWest Germany. TheVolkskammer approved the treaty on September 20 by a margin of 299-80—in effect, voting East Germany to dissolve itself.
On 3 October 1990 the five new states andEast Berlin (which was unified withWest Berlin),were unified withWest Germany in 1990.
The post-1990 unitedGermany is not asuccessor state, but an enlarged continuation of the former West Germany. As such, the enlargedFederal Republic of Germany retained the West German seats in international organizations, while the memberships in theWarsaw Pact and other international organizations to which East Germany belonged simply ceased to exist because East Germany ceased to exist.
Thedissolution of the Holy Roman Empire occurredde facto on 6 August 1806, when the lastHoly Roman Emperor,Francis II of theHouse of Habsburg-Lorraine, abdicated his title and released all imperial states and officials from their oaths and obligations to the empire. Since theMiddle Ages, theHoly Roman Empire had been recognised byWestern Europeans as the legitimate continuation of the ancientWestern Roman Empire due to its emperors having been proclaimed asRoman emperors by thepapacy. Through this Roman legacy, the Holy Roman Emperors claimed to beuniversal monarchs whose jurisdiction extended beyond their empire's formal borders to all ofChristian Europe and beyond. The decline of the Holy Roman Empire was a long and drawn-out process lasting centuries. The formation of the first modernsovereign territorial states in the 16th and 17th centuries, which brought with it the idea that jurisdiction corresponded to actual territory governed, threatened the universal nature of the Holy Roman Empire.
Thedissolution of the Monasteries, was the set of administrative and legal processes between 1536 and 1541 by whichHenry VIII disbandedmonasteries,priories,convents andfriaries, inEngland, Wales andIreland, appropriated their income, disposed of their assets, and provided for their former personnel and functions.
TheNetherlands Antilles was an autonomousCaribbean country within theKingdom of the Netherlands. It was dissolved on 10 October 2010.[2][3]
After dissolution, the "BES islands" of theDutch Caribbean—Bonaire,Sint Eustatius, andSaba—became theCaribbean Netherlands, "special municipalities" of theNetherlands proper — a structure that only exists in the Caribbean. MeanwhileCuraçao andSint Maarten becameconstituent countries within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, along the lines ofAruba, which separated from the Netherlands Antilles in 1986.
Thedissolution of the Ottoman Empire occurred between 1908 and 1922, and began with theSecond Constitutional Era with theYoung Turk Revolution. It restored theOttoman constitution of 1876 and brought inmulti-party politics with atwo stage electoral system (electoral law) under theOttoman parliament. The constitution offered hope by freeing the empire's citizens to modernize the state's institutions and dissolve inter-communal tensions.[4]
Theoccupation of Istanbul along with theoccupation of Izmir mobilised theTurkish national movement which ultimately won theTurkish War of Independence. The formalabolition of the Ottoman Sultanate was performed by theGrand National Assembly of Turkey on 1 November 1922. The Sultan was declaredpersona non grata from the lands that theOttoman Dynasty ruled since 1299.
TheFree State of Prussia was dissolved on 25 February 1947, by decree of theAllied Control Council.[5]
Thedissolution of the Soviet Union occurred between 1988 and 1991, and was the process of internaldisintegration within theUSSR, which began withgrowing unrest in its variousconstituent republics developing into anincessant political and legislative conflict between the republics and the central government, and ended when the leaders of three primal republics (theRussian SFSR, theUkrainian SSR and theByelorussian SSR)declared it no longer existed, lateraccompanied by 11 more republics, resulting inPresidentMikhail Gorbachev having to resign andwhat was left of the Soviet parliament formally acknowledging what had already taken place.
The failure of the1991 August Coup, when Soviet government and military elites tried to overthrow Gorbachev and stop the "parade of sovereignties", led to the government inMoscow losing most of its influence, and many republics proclaiming independence in the following days and months. The secession of theBaltic states, the first to declare their sovereignty and then their full independence, was recognized in September 1991. TheBelovezha Accords were signed on December 8 byPresidentBoris Yeltsin ofRussia,PresidentLeonid Kravchuk ofUkraine, andChairmanStanislav Shushkevich ofBelarus, recognising each other's independence and creating theCommonwealth of Independent States (CIS). The remaining republics, with the exception ofGeorgia, joined theCommonwealth of Independent States on December 21, signing theAlma-Ata Declaration[6]
On December 25, President Mikhail Gorbachev resigned, declaredhis office extinct, and handed over its powers—including control of thenuclear launch codes—to Yeltsin. That evening at 7:32 p.m., theSoviet flag was lowered from theKremlin for the last time and replaced with theRussian national flag.[6] On the next day, the Declaration 142-Н of theSupreme Soviet's upper chamber, theSoviet of the Republics, recognisedself-governing independence for the Soviet republics,formally dissolving the Union.[7][8] Both theRevolutions of 1989 in theEastern Bloc and the dissolution of the Soviet Union marked the end of theCold War.
In theaftermath of the Cold War, several of theformer Soviet republics have retained close links with Russia and formedmultilateral organizations such as the CIS, theEurasian Economic Community, theUnion State, theEurasian Customs Union, and theEurasian Economic Union, for economic and military cooperation. On the other hand, the Baltic states and the former Eastern Bloc countries joinedNATO and theEuropean Union, while Georgia and Ukraine have distanced themselves from Russia and express interest in following the same path.
TheUnited Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves was the transatlantic metropolis that controlled thePortuguesecolonial empire, with its overseas possessions in Africa and Asia.
Thus, from the point of view of Brazil, the elevation to the rank of a kingdom and the creation of the United Kingdom represented a change in status, from that of a colony to that of an equal member of apolitical union. In the wake of theLiberal Revolution of 1820 in Portugal, attempts to compromise the autonomy and even the unity of Brazil,led to the breakdown of the union.
Thedissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden between the kingdoms ofNorway andSweden under theHouse of Bernadotte, was set in motion by a resolution of the Norwegian Parliament (theStorting) on 7 June 1905. Following some months of tension and fear of war between the neighboring kingdoms (then inpersonal union) – and aNorwegian plebiscite held on 13 August which overwhelmingly backed dissolution – negotiations between the two governments led to Sweden's recognition of Norway as an independentconstitutional monarchy on 26 October 1905. On that date,King Oscar II renounced his claim to theNorwegian throne, effectively dissolving theUnited Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway, and this event was swiftly followed, on 18 November, by the accession to the Norwegian throne ofPrince Carl of Denmark, taking the name of Haakon VII.
Thedissolution of theViceroyalty of the Río de la Plata was the independence and breaking up of theSpanish colony inSouth America. Most of the viceroyalty is now part ofArgentina, and other regions belong toBolivia,Brazil,Paraguay andUruguay.
Thedissolution of Yugoslavia occurred as a result of a series of political upheavals and conflicts during the early 1990s. After a period of political and economic crisis in the 1980s, constituent republics of theSocialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia split apart, but the unresolved issues caused bitter inter-ethnicYugoslav wars. The wars primarily affectedBosnia and Herzegovina, neighbouring parts ofCroatia and, some years later,Kosovo.
After theAllied victory inWorld War II, Yugoslavia was set up as a federation of six republics, with borders drawn along ethnic and historical lines:Bosnia and Herzegovina,Croatia,Macedonia,Montenegro,Serbia, andSlovenia. In addition, two autonomous provinces were established within Serbia:Vojvodina andKosovo. Each of the republics had its own branch of theLeague of Communists of Yugoslavia party and a ruling elite, and any tensions were solved on the federal level. The Yugoslav model of state organisation, as well as amarket socialist "middle way" betweenplanned andliberal economy, had been a relative success, and the country experienced a period of strong economic growth and relative political stability up to the 1980s, under dictatorial rule ofJosip Broz Tito. After his death in 1980, the weakened system of federal government was left unable to cope with rising economic and political challenges.
In the 1980s,Albanians of Kosovo started to demand that their autonomous province be granted the status of a constituent republic, starting with the1981 protests. Ethnic tensions between Albanians andKosovo Serbs remained high over the whole decade, which resulted in the growth of Serb opposition to the high autonomy of provinces and ineffective system of consensus at the federal level across Yugoslavia, which were seen as an obstacle for Serb interests. In 1987,Slobodan Milošević came to power in Serbia, and through a series of populist moves acquiredde facto control over Kosovo, Vojvodina, and Montenegro, garnering a high level of support among Serbs for hiscentralist policies. Milošević was met with opposition by party leaders of the western republics of Slovenia and Croatia, who also advocated greater democratisation of the country in line with theRevolutions of 1989 inEastern Europe. The League of Communists of Yugoslavia dissolved in January 1990 along federal lines. Republican communist organisations became the separate socialist parties.
During 1990, the socialists (former communists) lost power toethnic separatist parties in thefirst multi-party elections held across the country, except inSerbia and Montenegro, where Milošević and his allies won. Nationalist rhetoric on all sides became increasingly heated. Between June 1991 and April 1992, four republics declared independence (only Serbia and Montenegro remained federated), but the status of ethnic Serbs outside Serbia and Montenegro, and that of ethnic Croats outside Croatia, remained unsolved. After a string of inter-ethnic incidents, theYugoslav Wars ensued, firstin Croatia and then, most severely, in multi-ethnicBosnia and Herzegovina. The wars left long-term economic and political damage in the region, still felt there decades later.[9]
Thedissolution of Belgium is a hypothetical situation which has been discussed by both Belgian and international media envisioning a split ofthe country along linguistic divisions, with each of theFlemish Community (Flanders) and theFrench-speaking Community (Wallonia) becoming independent states. Alternatively, it is hypothesized that Flanders could join the Netherlands (Greater Netherlands movement) and Wallonia could join France (rattachist movement).[10][11][12]
Both communities currently have a large degree of autonomy within the Belgianfederation.
Complicating questions of partition are the status in a partitioned Belgium ofBrussels; currently an autonomous bilingual region of itself — and the minorityGerman-speaking Community.
Dissolution of Iraq has been proposed as a solution to the country's sectarian issues and wars.[13] Those favouring dissolution claim Iraq is an artificially created state[13] and as a remnant of theregional Ottoman rule[14][15] andBritish colonial rule; the British authorities selectedSunni Arab elites from the region for appointments to government and ministry offices, furthering sectarian inequalities.[specify][16][page needed][17]
The sectarian divides are between theBa'athistloyalists (includingSaddamists andIraqi-Arab nationalists) (mostly also Sunni's), theShia majority (South and East Iraq) andSunni minority (North and West Iraq) and thevarious ethnic minorities;[13] with theAssyrian autonomy movement andindependence ambitions of theKurds in Iraq.
Sectarian issues between the Iraq's territorial disputes have long been a source of conflict.[13] Between 1936 and 1975 there was thelong standing dispute overShatt al-Arab, ending inconflict. There was theShia uprising in 1979. In 1980Iran wasinvaded by neighbouringBa'athist Iraq leading to an8 year war partly to try and preventAyatollah Ruhollah Khomeini fromexporting the1979 Iranian Revolution movement toShia-majority Iraq andthreaten theSunni-dominatedBa'athist leadership. Theinvasion of Kuwait sparkied theGulf War in 1990, and the2003 invasion sparked theIraq War. The sectarian issue was particularly evident during thecivil war between 2005 and 2009, asintercommunal violence between IraqiSunni andShi'a factions became prevalent. In February 2006, the Sunni organizationAl-Qaeda in Iraqbombed one of the holiest sites in Shi'a Islam—theal-Askari Mosque inSamarra. This set off a wave of Shi'a reprisals against Sunnis followed by Sunni counterattacks.[18] The conflict escalated over the next several months until by 2007, theNational Intelligence Estimate described the situation as having elements of acivil war.[19] In the mid to late 2010s, despite theIslamic State of Iraq and the Levant havinglost territorial control in thecivil war, theinsurgency continued.
Iraqi Kurdistan first gained autonomous status in a 1970 agreement with theIraqi government, and its status was re-confirmed as the autonomousKurdistan Region within thefederal Iraqi republic in 2005.[20] Further to the long-standingIraqi–Kurdish conflict, there are numerousdisputed territories in the region. With the historical precedent set by theKingdom of Kurdistan, theKurdistan Regional Government has also held two unrecognised independence referendums: in2005 and2017. There was also aKirkuk status referendum. Matter ofKurdish independence are further complicated byconflict with Turkey, the previousIraqi Kurdish Civil War, and theSyrian Civil War.
Kosovo, which unilaterallydeclared independence in 2008 fromSerbia[21] has been embroiled in adispute over its status. Dissolution of Kosovo is a proposed solution in the context ofpartition along ethnic lines, separatingSerb-dominatedNorth Kosovo, and possibly someenclaves in the south, from the rest of theAlbanian-dominated Kosovo and the idea of theunification ofAlbania andKosovo.[22] The latter idea has been brought into connection with theirredentist concept ofGreater Albania.[23][24][25]
With the outbreak of theSyrian Civil War,the territorial advance by theIslamic State of Iraq and the Levant, which has in turn led to renewed calls of variousseparatist claims due to issues withvarious sectarian divides, dissolution has been proposed as a solution. This has been especially true regarding the status of theKurds in Syria who inhabitSyrian Kurdistan andRojava However, so farfederalisation of Syria seems a much more likely outcome with the establishment of theAutonomous Administration of North and East Syria. Matters of an independentKurdistan are further complicated by theRojava conflict,Kurdish-Islamist conflict and theconflict with neighbouring Turkey.
With theimpact of Brexit, and strengthening of support forScottishindependence, various scenarios have been mooted regarding the future of the currentUnited Kingdom. These events in turn have strengthened other independence movements in theUnited Kingdom; theindependence movement ofWales,Cornishindependence and called into question the status ofNorthern Ireland; including not onlyunification with the Republic of Ireland, but alsotheir own potential independence. A smallLondon independence movement has been formed, whilstEnglish independence and aproposed English parliament movements have existed for some time already. Scottish independence itself has also called into question theconstitutional status ofOrkney,Shetland and theWestern Isles. Other issues include the status ofcrown Dependencies;Jersey,Guernsey (which includes the island ofGuernsey and the autonomousSark andAlderney), and theIsle of Man. The status ofBritish Overseas Territories, especiallyGibraltar, but also those which lie further afield (for example theCayman Islands,Falkland Islands,Montserrat andAnguilla) is also linked, and in the context of theterritorial evolution of the British Empire, linked totheir independence as the final part ofBritish decolonisation.
Therefore, a potential dissolution of the United Kingdom has been muted, with various potential nations and states emerging and changing theirconstitutional status. It is seen as a resolution of thevarious grievances and the balance of thecountries of the United Kingdom, including theWest Lothian question. Legal complexities relate to the complicated nature ofBritish nationality law, and the status of the various Act of Union:1535 and 1542 (England andWales),1652 (Scotland andEngland),1707 (Scotland andEngland to formGreat Britain), and1800 (Great Britain andIreland to form theUnited Kingdom).
The dissolution of the United States is apolitical science theory on the possible disintegration of theUnited States of America.[26][27][28]
Fitch believes while the eventual partition of Belgium has always been a possibility, it is unlikely to happen over the medium-term. It added that the most likely scenario is that hard-fought negotiation will result inconstitutional changes that further decentralise the Belgian state.
A US intelligence assessment on Iraq says "civil war" accurately describes certain aspects of the conflict, including intense sectarian violence.
Undoubtedly, Kosovo's independence has revived the idea of the national unification of Albanians