Discrimination against LGBTQ people includesdiscrimination againstLGBTQ people as a whole and against specific subgroups:lesbians,gay men,bisexuals,transgender people,queer people, among othersexual and gender minorities.
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Homophobia encompasses a range of negative attitudes and feelings towardhomosexuality or people who identify or are perceived as beinglesbian,gay orbisexual.[1][2][3] It has been defined as contempt, prejudice, aversion, hatred, orantipathy, may be based on irrational fear and may sometimes be attributed to religious beliefs.[4][5] Homophobia is observable in critical and hostile behavior such as discrimination andviolence on the basis ofsexual orientations that arenon-heterosexual.[1][2][6]
Recognized types of homophobia includeinstitutionalized homophobia, e.g. religious homophobia and state-sponsored homophobia, andinternalized homophobia, experienced by people who have same-sex attractions, regardless of how they identify.[7][8] According to 2010 Hate Crimes Statistics released by the FBI National Press Office, 19.3 percent ofhate crimes across the United States "were motivated by a sexual orientation bias."[9] Moreover, aSouthern Poverty Law Center 2010Intelligence Report extrapolating data from FBI national hate crime statistics from 1995 to 2008, found that LGBTQ people were "far more likely than any otherminority group in the United States to be victimized by violent hate crime."[10].jpg)
Discrimination against lesbians, sometimes calledlesbophobia or lesphobia, comprises various forms of prejudice and negativity towardslesbians as individuals, as couples, as asocial group, or lesbianism in general.
Examples of discrimination against lesbians include, but are not limited to, discrimination in housing and employment, physical or sexual abuse includingcorrective rape, lack of legal protections for lesbian couples to care for one another, removal of children from lesbian mothers, negative stereotypes and negative media representation, verbal harassment, legal persecution and imprisonment, government censorship, and familial and/or community rejection.
Lesbophobia is analogous togayphobia.
Discrimination against gay men, sometimes called gayphobia, is a form ofhomophobic prejudice, hatred, or bias specifically directed towardgay men, malehomosexuality, or men who areperceived to be gay.[11][12][13][14] This discrimination is closely related tofemmephobia, which is the dislike of, or hostility toward, individuals who present as feminine, including gay andeffeminate men.[15]
Discrimination against gay men can result from religion, prejudicial reactions to one's femininemannerisms, styles ofclothing, and evenvocal register.[16][17][18] Within theLGBTQ-community,internalized issues around meeting social expectations ofmasculinity have been found among gay, bisexual, and transgender men.[19] It is analogous tolesbophobia.Like people of other LGBTQ sexualities, bisexuals often face discrimination. In addition to the discrimination associated withhomophobia, bisexuals frequently contend with discrimination from gay men, lesbians, and straight society around the wordbisexual and bisexual identity itself.[20][21][22] The belief that everyone is bisexual (especially women as opposed to men),[23][24] or that bisexuality does not exist as a unique identity, is common.[20][25] This stems from two views: In theheterosexist view, people are presumed to be sexually attracted to the opposite sex, and it is sometimes reasoned that a bisexual person is simply a heterosexual person who is sexually experimenting.[22] In the monosexist view, it is believed that people cannot be bisexual unless they are equally sexually attracted to both sexes, regulating sexual orientation to being about the sex or gender one prefers.[20][21] In this view, people are either exclusively homosexual (gay/lesbian) or exclusively heterosexual (straight),[20]closeted homosexual people who wish to appear heterosexual,[26] or heterosexuals who are experimenting with their sexuality.[22][27] Assertions that one cannot be bisexual unless equally sexually attracted to both sexes, however, are disputed by various researchers, who have reported bisexualityto fall on a continuum, like sexuality in general.[28][29]
Male bisexuality is particularly presumed to be non-existent,[24] withsexual fluidity studies adding to the debate. In 2005, researchers Gerulf Rieger,Meredith L. Chivers, andJ. Michael Bailey usedpenile plethysmography to measure the arousal of self-identified bisexual men topornography involving only men and pornography involving only women. Participants were recruited via advertisements in gay-oriented magazines and an alternative paper. They found that the self-identified bisexual men in their sample had genital arousal patterns similar to either homosexual or heterosexual men. The authors concluded that "in terms of behavior and identity, bisexual men clearly exist", but that male bisexuality had not been shown to exist with respect to arousal or attraction.[30] Some researchers hold that the technique used in the study to measure genital arousal is too crude to capture the richness (erotic sensations, affection, admiration) that constitutes sexual attraction.[29] TheNational Gay and Lesbian Task Force called the study andThe New York Times coverage of it flawed and biphobic.[31]
TheAmerican Institute of Bisexuality stated that Bailey's study was misinterpreted and misreported by bothThe New York Times and its critics.[32] In 2011, Bailey and other researchers reported that among men with a history of several romantic and sexual relationships with members of both sexes, high levels of sexual arousal were found in response to both male and female sexual imagery.[33][34] The subjects were recruited from aCraigslist group for men seeking intimacy with both members of a heterosexual couple. The authors said that this change in recruitment strategy was an important difference, but it may not have been a representative sample of bisexual-identified men. They concluded that "bisexual-identified men with bisexual arousal patterns do indeed exist", but could not establish whether such a pattern is typical of bisexual-identified men in general.[34][35]
Bisexual erasure (or bisexual invisibility) is the tendency to ignore, remove, falsify, or reexplain evidence of bisexuality inculture,history,academia,news media and otherprimary sources.[20][21][36] In its most extreme form, bisexual erasure includes denying that bisexuality exists.[20][36] It is often a manifestation of biphobia,[20][21][36] although it does not necessarily involve overt antagonism.
There is increasing inclusion and visibility of bisexuals, particularly in the LGBTQ community.[37][38] American psychologist Beth Firestone writes that since she wrote her first book on bisexuality, in 1996, "bisexuality has gained visibility, although progress is uneven and awareness of bisexuality is still minimal or absent in many of the more remote regions of our country and internationally."[39]
Transphobia consists of negative attitudes, feelings, or actions towardstransgender ortranssexual people, ortransness in general. Transphobia can include fear, aversion, hatred, violence or anger towards people who do not conform to socialgender roles.[40][41] Transphobia is a type ofprejudice anddiscrimination, similar toracism,sexism, orableism,[42][page needed] and it is closely associated withhomophobia.[43][44]People of color who are transgender experiencediscrimination above and beyond that which can be explained as a simple combination of transphobia and racism.[45]
Transgender youth often experience a combination ofabuse from family members,sexual harassment, andbullying or school violence.[46] They are also disproportionately placed infoster care andwelfare programs compared to their peers.[47] Adult transgender people regularly encountersexual violence,police violence, publicridicule, misgendering, or other forms of violence and harassment in their daily lives.[48] These issues cause many trans people to feel unsafe in public. Other issues includehealthcare discrimination, workplace discrimination or feeling under siege byconservative political or religious groups whooppose LGBT-rights laws.[49] Discrimination and violence sometimes originates from people withinthe LGBT community[50] orfeminist movements.
As well as increased risk of violence and other threats, thestress created by transphobia causes negative mental health outcomes and leads todrug use disorders,running away from home (in minors), and suicide.
In much of theWestern world, there has been a gradual establishment of policies combatting discrimination and supporting equal opportunity in all aspects of life since the 1990s. The trend is also taking shape in somedeveloping nations. In addition, campaigns regarding the LGBT community are being spread around the world to improve social acceptance of nontraditional gender identities. The "Stop the Stigma" campaign by the UN is one such example.[51] However, transphobic violence has been on the rise since 2021,[52] accompanied with an increase in anti-trans discriminatory laws being enacted in many countries.[53][54]
Transmisogyny, otherwise known as trans-misogyny and transphobic misogyny, is theintersection oftransphobia andmisogyny as experienced bytrans women andtransfeminine people.[59][60] The term was coined byJulia Serano in her 2007 bookWhipping Girl to describe a particular form ofoppression experienced by trans women.[61][62][63] In a 2017 interview withThe New York Times, Serano explores the roots of transmisogyny as a critique of feminine gender expressions which are "ridiculed in comparison to masculine interests and gender expression."[64]
Transmisogyny is a central concept intransfeminism and is commonly referenced inintersectional feminist theory. In her definition of transmisogyny, Serano does not limit those affected by transmisogyny to individuals who identify astransgender and includes others, such ascisgender people, and those who identify asdrag queens.[65] | The examples and perspective in this sectionmay not represent aworldwide view of the subject. You mayimprove this section, discuss the issue on thetalk page, or create a new section, as appropriate.(November 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
LGBTQ individuals have faced a long history of discrimination. They've been labeled as mentally ill, faced forced attempts to change who they are, and experienced hate crimes and exclusion from jobs, homes, and public places.[66]
Survey studies show that instances of personal discrimination are common among LGBTQ community. This includes things like slurring, sexual harassment, and violence.[67] According to a survey conducted for National Public Radio, at least one in five LGBTQ Americans have experienced discrimination in public because of their identity. This includes in housing, education, employment, and law enforcement. Furthermore, the report reveals that people of color in the LGBTQ community are twice more likely than white people in the LGBTQ community to experience discrimination, specifically in job applications and interactions with police.[68] One-third of LGBTQ Americans believe that the bigger problem is based on laws, and government policies, and the rest believe that it is based on individual prejudice. Due to the experiences of discrimination in public, many LGBTQ Americans tries to avoid situations or places out of fear of discrimination, such as bathrooms, medical care, or calling the police.[69]
A survey by CAP shows that 25.2% of LGBTQ people experienceddiscrimination based on their sexual orientation or gender identity, and that these discriminations negatively affect their well-being and living environment. Due to the fear of discrimination, many LGBTQ people change their lives such as hiding their relationships, delaying health care, avoid social situations, etc.[70] In research publish by UCLA School of Law, survey data showed that 29.8% of LGBTQ employees experienced workplace discrimination such as being fired or not hired. LGBTQ employees who are people of color were much more likely to report that they didn't get hired because of their sexual orientation or gender identity, compared to white LGBTQ employees. Transgender employees were more likely to face discrimination based on their LGBTQ identity compared to cisgender LGBTQ employees. Almost half (48.8%) of transgender employees experienced discrimination due to their LGBTQ identity, while only 27.8% of cisgender LGBTQ employees reported such experiences. In addition, over half (57.0%) of discriminated LGBTQ employees said their employer or co-workers indicated that the unfair treatment was linked to religious beliefs.[71] In the U.S., certain states have passed laws permitting child welfare agencies to deny services to LGBTQ community based on religious or moral beliefs. Similarly, some states allow healthcare providers to refuse certain procedures or medications for LGBTQ community on religious or moral grounds. Additionally, certain states permit businesses to decline services to LGBTQ people or same-sex couples, particularly in the context of wedding-related services, citing religious or moral beliefs.[72]
In a 2001 study that examined possible root causes ofmental disorders inlesbian,gay andbisexual people, Cochran and psychologistVickie M. Mays, of theUniversity of California, explored whether ongoing discrimination fuelsanxiety,depression and other stress-related mental health problems among cisgender LGBTQ people.[73] The authors found strong evidence of a relationship between the two.[73] The team compared how 74 cisgender LGBTQ and 2,844 heterosexual respondents rated lifetime and daily experiences with discrimination such as not being hired for a job or being denied a bank loan, as well as feelings of perceived discrimination.[73] Cisgender LGBTQ respondents reported higher rates of perceived discrimination than heterosexuals in every category related to discrimination, the team found.[73] However, while gay youth are considered to be at higher risk for suicide, a literature review published in the journalAdolescence states, "Being gay in-and-of-itself is not the cause of the increase in suicide." Rather the review notes that the findings of previous studies suggested the,"...suicide attempts were significantly associated with psychosocial stressors, including gender nonconformity, early awareness of being gay, victimization, lack of support, school dropout, family problems, acquaintances' suicide attempts, homelessness, substance abuse, and other psychiatric disorders. Some of these stressors are also experienced by heterosexual adolescents, but they have been shown to be more prevalent among gay adolescents."[74] Despite recent progress in LGBTQ rights, gay men continue to experience high rates ofloneliness and depression after coming out.[75]
Because of the complicated interplay among gender identity, gender roles, and sexual identity, transgender people are often assumed to be lesbian or gay (SeeOverview: Sexism, Heterosexism, and Transgender Oppression). ... Because transgender identity challenges a binary conception of sexuality and gender, educators must clarify their own understanding of these concepts. ... Facilitators must be able to help participants understand the connections among sexism, heterosexism, and transgender oppression and the ways in which gender roles are maintained, in part, through homophobia.
In a culture of homophobia (an irrational fear of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender [GLBT] people), GLBT people often face a heightened risk of violence specific to their sexual identities.
Homophobia is an individual's irrational fear or hate of homosexual people. This may include bisexual or transgender persons, but sometimes the more distinct terms of biphobia or transphobia, respectively, are used.
Fear or hatred of homosexuals and homosexuality.
{{cite book}}:|url-access= requires|url= (help)Because of the complicated interplay among gender identity, gender roles, and sexual identity, transgender people are often assumed to be lesbian or gay (SeeOverview: Sexism, Heterosexism, and Transgender Oppression). ... Because transgender identity challenges a binary conception of sexuality and gender, educators must clarify their own understanding of these concepts. ... Facilitators must be able to help participants understand the connections among sexism, heterosexism, and transgender oppression and the ways in which gender roles are maintained, in part, through homophobia.
Transgender people subjected to violence, in a range of cultural contexts, frequently report that transphobic violence is expressed in homophobic terms. The tendency to translate violence against a trans person to homophobia reflects the role of gender in attribution of homosexuality as well as the fact that hostility connected to homosexuality is often associated with the perpetrators' prejudices about particular gender practices and their visibility.