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Digambara (/dɪˈɡʌmbərə/; "sky-clad") is one of the two majorschools of Jainism, the other beingŚvetāmbara (white-clad). TheSanskrit wordDigambara means "sky-clad", referring to their traditional monastic practice of neither possessing nor wearing any clothes.[1] Nakedness was the ideal practice of lordMahavira and his immediate followers.[2] Mahavira emphasised the importance of nakedness for monks.[3] It symbolizes complete detachment and is an ideal form of conduct.[4] Mahavira believed that renouncing clothes made the body immune to external influences like heat and cold, increasing resilience. Without clothes, a monk would avoid the distractions of acquiring, maintaining, and washing garments, allowing him to focus on spiritual growth and self-discipline.[3]
Digambara and Śvetāmbara traditions have had historical differences ranging from their dress code, their temples and iconography, attitude towards female monastics, their legends, and the texts they consider as important. Digambaras maintain that women cannot attain nirvana. However, Śvetāmbaras differ and maintain that women as well aseunuchs can attain nirvana, having more inclusivity.[5][6][7]
Digambara monks believe in the virtue of non-attachment and non-possession of any material goods. Monks carry a community-ownedpicchi, which is a broom made of fallenpeacock feathers for removing and thus saving the life of insects in their path or before they sit.[1]
The Digambara literature can be traced only to the first millennium, with its oldest surviving sacred text being the mid-second centuryṢaṭkhaṅḍāgama ("Scripture in Six Parts") of Dharasena (theMoodabidri manuscripts).[8] One of the most important scholar-monks of the Digambara tradition wasKundakunda.
Digambara Jain communities are currently found in most parts of India likeRajasthan,Uttar Pradesh,Delhi,Bihar,Jharkhand,Madhya Pradesh,Maharashtra,Karnataka andTamil Nadu.[7][9]
According toHeinrich Zimmer, the wordDigambara is a combination of twoSanskrit words:dik (दिक्) (space, sky) andambara (अम्बर) (garment), referring to those whose garments are of the element that fills the four quarters of space.[10]
One of the main principle in Jainism isaparigraha which means non-attachment to worldly possessions.[11] For monks and nuns, Jainism requires a vow of complete non-possession of any property, relations and emotions.[12] The ascetic is a wandering mendicant in the Digambara tradition, or a resident mendicant in theŚvētāmbara tradition.[12] For Jain laypersons, it recommends limited possession of property that has been honestly earned, and giving excess property to charity.[11] According to Natubhai Shah,aparigraha applies to both the material and the psychic. Material possessions refer to various forms of property. Psychic possessions refer to emotions, likes and dislikes, and attachments of any form. Unchecked attachment to possessions is said to result in direct harm to one's personality.[13]
The principle ofahimsa (non-violence or non-injury) is a fundamental tenet of Jainism.[14] It holds that one must abandon all violent activity and that without such a commitment to non-violence all religious behavior is worthless.[14] In Jain theology, it does not matter how correct or defensible the violence may be, one must not kill or harm any being, and non-violence is the highest religious duty.[14][15] Jain texts such asĀcārāṅga Sūtra andTattvarthasūtra state that one must renounce all killing of living beings, whether tiny or large, movable or immovable.[16][17] Its theology teaches that one must neither kill another living being, nor cause another to kill, nor consent to any killing directly or indirectly.[15][16]
Furthermore, Jainism emphasizes non-violence against all beings not only in action but also in speech and in thought.[16][17] It states that instead of hate or violence against anyone, "all living creatures must help each other".[17][a]
Jains believe that violence negatively affects and destroys one's soul, particularly when the violence is done with intent, hate or carelessness, or when one indirectly causes or consents to the killing of a human or non-human living being.[17]
The doctrine exists in Hinduism and Buddhism, but is most highly developed in Jainism.[14][19][20][21][22] The theological basis of non-violence as the highest religious duty has been interpreted by some Jain scholars not to "be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor a duty to rescue all creatures", but resulting from "continual self-discipline", a cleansing of the soul that leads to one's own spiritual development which ultimately affects one's salvation and release from rebirths.[23] Jains believe that causing injury to any being in any form creates badkarma which affects one's rebirth, future well-being and causes suffering.[24][25]
Late medieval Jain scholars re-examined theAhiṃsā doctrine when faced with external threat or violence. For example, they justified violence by monks to protect nuns.[26][27] According toDundas, the Jain scholarJinadattasuri wrote during a time of destruction of temples and persecution that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody would not lose any spiritual merit but instead attain deliverance".[28]
However, examples in Jain texts that condone fighting and killing under certain circumstances are relatively rare.[26][b]
The second main principle of Jainism isanekāntavāda,[30][31] fromanekānta ("many-sidedness," etymologically "non-oneness" or "not being one") andvada ("doctrine").[30][31] The doctrine states that truth and reality are complex and always have multiple aspects. It further states that reality can be experienced, but cannot be fully expressed with language. It suggests that human attempts to communicate areNaya, "partial expression of the truth".[30] According to it, one can experience the taste of truth, but cannot fully express that taste through language. It holds that attempts to express experience aresyāt, or valid "in some respect", but remain "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete".[32] It concludes that in the same way, spiritual truths can be experienced but not fully expressed.[30] It suggests that the great error is belief inekānta (one-sidedness), where some relative truth is treated as absolute.[33] The doctrine is ancient, found in Buddhist texts such as theSamaññaphala Sutta. The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahāvīra's approach to answering all metaphysical philosophical questions was a "qualified yes" (syāt).[34][35] These texts identifyanekāntavāda as a key difference from theBuddha's teachings. The Buddha taught the Middle Way, rejecting extremes of the answer "it is" or "it is not" to metaphysical questions. The Mahāvīra, in contrast, taught his followers to accept both "it is", and "it is not", qualified with "perhaps", to understand Absolute Reality.[36] The permanent being is conceptualized asjiva (soul) andajiva (matter) within a dualisticanekāntavāda framework.[37]
According toPaul Dundas, in contemporary times theanekāntavāda doctrine has been interpreted by some Jains as intending to "promote a universal religious tolerance", and a teaching of "plurality" and "benign attitude to other [ethical, religious] positions". Dundas states this is a misreading of historical texts and Mahāvīra's teachings.[38] According to him, the "many pointedness, multiple perspective" teachings of the Mahāvīra is about the nature ofabsolute reality and human existence.[39] He claims that it is not about condoning activities such as killing animals for food, nor violence against disbelievers or any other living being as "perhaps right".[38] The five vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are strict requirements and there is no "perhaps" about them.[40] Similarly, since ancient times, Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism according to Dundas, but Jainism disagreed, in specific areas, with the knowledge systems and beliefs of these traditions, and vice versa.[41]
The history of theDigambara tradition includes its divergence from the early Jainsangha, a period of significant royal patronage inSouthern India, and the subsequent formation of various sub-sects.[citation needed]
The Digambaras and Śvetāmbara disagree on how the Digambara subtradition started in Jainism.[42] According to Digambaras, they are the original followers ofMahavira and Śvetāmbara branched off later in the time ofBhadrabahu when their forecast twelve-year famine triggered their migration from central India.[42] One group of Jain monks headed west and north towards Rajasthan], while the second group headed south towards Karnataka. The former became Śvetāmbara and retained their "heretic" beliefs and practices such as wearing "white clothes" they adopted there, say the Digambaras.[42]
In contrast, according to Śvetāmbara, they are the original followers, and Digambaras arose 609 years after the death of Mahavira (about 1st century CE) because of an arrogant man namedSivabhuti who became a Jain monk in a fit of pique after a fight at home.[42] However, according toJinabhadra Gaṇi Kshamashramana, in his work Viśeṣāvaśyaka Bhāṣya, from which this account of the sect's creation is derived, he explicitly states that Sivabhuti was the eighth heretic who is regarded as the founder 'Bodiya ditthi' or Botika sect, also known as the Digambara sect.[43][44][45] He is accused of starting the Digambara tradition with what Śvetāmbara call as "eight concealments", of rejecting Jain texts preserved by the Śvetāmbara tradition, and misunderstanding the Jain ideology including those related to nuns and clothes.[42]
The earliest version of this Digambara story appears in the 10th century CE, while the earliest version of the Śvetāmbara story appears in the 5th century CE.[46]
Oldest archeological evidence of Digambara Jains dates to the Mangalam Jain inscriptions which mention that workers ofNeṭuñceḻiyaṉ I, aPandyan king ofSangam period, (c. 270 BCE) made stone beds for Digambara Jain monks. It further details the name of the workers who made the stone beds. For example, an inscription shows that Kaṭalaṉ Vaḻuti, a worker (பணஅன் - accountant; he was also a relative) of Neṭuñceḻiyaṉ, made a stone bed for the Jain monk Nanta-siri Kuvaṉ.[47]
In 1943,Heinrich Zimmer proposed that the Greek records of 4th-century BCE mentiongymnosophists (naked philosophers) which may have links to the tradition of "naked ascetics" or Digambara.[10] In 2011,Patrick Olivelle stated that the context in which the Greek records mention gymnosophists include ritual suicide by cremation traceable to ancientBrahmanism, rather than the traditional Jain ritual of embracing death by starvation and taking samadhi by voluntarily sacrificing everything including food and water (sallekhana).[48] Tirthankara statues found in Mathura and dated to 2nd-century CE or after are naked.[49] The oldest Tirthankara statue wearing a cloth is dated to the 5th century CE.[50]Digamabara statues of Tirthankara belonging to Gupta period feature half-closed eyes.[51]
Early Jain images from Mathura depict Digambara iconography until late fifth century CE where Śvetāmbara iconography starts appearing.[52]
According toDigambara texts, after liberation ofMahavira, threeAnubaddha Kevalīs attainedKevalajñāna (omniscience) sequentially –GautamaGaņadhara,AcharyaSudharma Swami, andJambusvami in next 62 years.[53] During the next hundred years, fiveĀchāryas had complete knowledge of the scriptures, as such, calledŚruta Kevalīs, the last of them beingĀchārya Bhadrabahu.[54][55] Spiritual lineage of heads of monastic orders is known asPattavali.[56] Digambara tradition consider Dharasena to be the 33rd teacher in succession of Gautama, 683 years after thenirvana of Mahavira.[57]
TheDigambara tradition received significant royal patronage in theDeccan and South India from approximately the mid-first millennium CE onwards, particularly from theWestern Ganga,Rashtrakuta, andChalukya dynasties.[citation needed] This support allowedDigambara acharyas to hold positions of influence and led to the creation of durable artistic and architectural works.[citation needed]
Under the Rashtrakuta dynasty, the scholarJinasena served as a preceptor to KingAmoghavarsha I (r. 814–878 CE).[citation needed] Jinasena and his discipleGunabhadra authored theMahāpurāṇa, a foundational text that includes theAdipurana (lives of the firsttirthankara) andUttarapurana.[citation needed] This period also corresponds with the excavation of several Jain caves atEllora, such as theIndra Sabha (Cave 32), which containDigambara iconography.[citation needed]
In the Digambara tradition, the following lineage of teachers is revered:Mahavira,Gautama,Kundakunda,[58]Bhadrabahu,Umaswami,Samantabhadra,Siddhasena Divakara,Pujyapada,Manatunga,Virasena,[59]Jinasena, andNemichandra.[citation needed] Kundakunda is considered the most significant scholar monk of the Digambara tradition of Jainism. He authoredPrakrit texts such as theSamayasāra and thePravacanasāra. Other prominentAcharyas of this tradition were,Virasena (author of a commentary on theDhavala),Samantabhadra andSiddhasena Divakara. TheSatkhandagama andKasayapahuda have major significance in theDigambara tradition.[citation needed]
There have been several Digambara monastic lineages that all trace their descent to Mahavira. The historical lineages includedMula Sangha (further divided intoNandi,Sena,Simha andDeva Sanghas) and now largely extinctKashtha Sangha (which includedMathura sangha, ""Lat-Vagad" etc.), Dravida Sangh.[60] The text Darshana-Sara of Devasena discusses the supposed differences among the orders.[61] TheMula sangha orders includeDeshiya Gana (Bhattarakas of Shravanabelgola etc.) andBalatkara Gana (Bhattarakas ofHumcha, and numerous lineages of North/Central India) traditions.[62] TheBhattarakas ofShravanabelagola andMudbidri belong toDeshiya Gana and theBhattaraka ofHumbaj belongs to theBalatkara Gana.[63]
In 17th-century,adhyatma movement inAgra led to rise ofterapanthi andbisapanthi sub-sects based on the differences over acceptance of authority ofbhattarakas.[64][65][66][67] KingJai Singh II (1688–1743) ofAmer kingdom built separate temples for the two sub-sects in his newly established capital ofJaipur.[64]Terapanthis, led by scholars likePandit Todarmal andBanarasidas, rejected the authority ofbhattarakas.[64][68][69]
ModernDigambara community is divided into various sub-sects viz.Terapanthi,Bispanthi,Taranpanthi (orSamayiapanthi),Gumanapanthi,Totapanthi andKanjipanthi.[71] Both theterapanthis andbisapanthis worship withashta-dravya which includesjal (water),chandan (sandal),akshata (sacred rice),pushp (yellow rice),deep (yellow dry coconut),dhup (kapoor or cloves) andphal (almonds).[72]Bisapanthi religious practices includeaarti and offerings of flowers, fruits andprasad whereasterapanthis don't use them.[72]Bispanthis worship minor gods and goddesses likeYaksha andYakshini likeBhairava andKshetrapala whereasterapanthis do not.[72]Bisapanthis acceptbhattarakas as their religious leaders butterapanthis do not.[72]Terapanthis occur in large numbers inRajasthan,Uttar Pradesh andMadhya Pradesh.[72] Bisapanthis are concentrated in Rajasthan,Gujarat, Maharastra and South India.[72]
TheDigambara sect of Jainism rejects the texts and canonical literature of theŚvetāmbara sect.[73][74] They believe that the words of Mahavira neither survive nor could be recorded. The original teachings went through a rapid period of decline, state the Digambaras, and Śvetāmbara claims of preserving the sacred knowledge and ancientangas is false.[73]
According to theDigambaras, their 33rdachārya was Dharasena who knew portions 12th Anga, the Drṣṭivada,[75] that contained material from the Purvas that dealt with karma theory. Dharasena (ca. 137 C.E.) taught what he remembered from this text to his disciples, Puspadanta and Bhutabali, who wrote theṢaṭkhaṅḍāgama ("Scripture in Six Parts").[75] Dharasena's teachings that have survived are Satkhaṇḍāgama andKasayapahuda (Treatise on the Passions), which were written on palm leaves near a cave in Mount Girnar (Gujarat) and a copy of which with a 12th-century commentary came toTulu Nadu (south Karnataka).[76] This has survived as the Mudbidri manuscripts, which were used by regional Jains not for reading and study, but as an object of devotional worship for centuries.[76] In the 19th century, the fragile and decaying manuscript was copied and portions of it leaked to scholars between 1896 and 1922 despite objections of Digambara monks. It is considered to be the oldest knownDigambara text ultimately traceable to the 2nd-century.[76]
These two oldest known Digambara tradition texts –Satkhandagama andKasayapahuda – are predominantly a treatise about the soul andKarma theory, written in Prakrit language. Philologically, the text belongs to about the 2nd-century, and has nothing that suggests it is of "immemorial antiquity".[76] In details, the text is quite similar in its teachings to those found inPrajnapana – the 4thupanga – of Śvetāmbaras.[73] Between the two, the poetic meter ofSatkhandagama suggests it was composed after the Śvetāmbara text.[73]
Digambaras, unlike Śvetāmbaras, do not have a canon. They do have a quasi-canonical literature grouped into four literary categories calledanuyoga (exposition) since the time of the Digambara scholar Rakshita.[77] Theprathmanuyoga (first exposition) contains the universal history, thekarananuyoga (calculation exposition) contains works on cosmology, thecharananuyoga (behaviour exposition) includes texts about proper behaviour for monks and lay people, while thedravyanuyoga (entity exposition) contains metaphysical discussions.[77] In the Digambara tradition, it is not the oldest texts that have survived in its temples and monasteries that attract the most study or reverence, but the late 9th-centuryMahapurana (universal history) of Jinasena that is the most revered and cherished.[78] TheMahapurana includes not only religious history, but also the sociological history of the Jaina people – including the Jain caste system and its origins as formulated byRishabhanatha – from the Digambara Jaina perspective.[79] TheDigamabara tradition maintains a long list of revered teachers, and this list includes Kundakunda, Samantabhadra, Pujyapada, Jinasena, Akalanka, Vidyanandi, Somadeva and Asadhara.[80]
The Digambara scriptures consist of post-canonical texts authored by various mendicant leaders, categorized into four sections known as Anuyogas ("Expositions"). These holy scriptures where written by great acharyas from 100 to 800 AD and are established on the original agam sutras.[81][82][83] Notable works from each category are listed below.[75]
The lifestyle and behavioral conduct of aDigambara monk is guided by a code calledmulacara (mulachara). This includes 28mūla guņas (primary attributes) for the monk.[84] The oldest text containing these norms is the 2nd-centuryMulachara attributed to Vattekara, that probably originated in the Mathura region.[77]
These are: 5mahāvratas (great vows); 5samitis (restraints); 5indriya nirodha (control of the five senses); 6āvaśyakas (essential observations); and 7niyamas (rules).[85]
| No. | Guna (attribute) | Remarks |
|---|---|---|
| Mahavratas- Five Great Vows[86][87] | 1.Ahimsa | Neither injure, nor ask, nor encourage another to injure any living being through actions, words or thoughts. This includes injury caused by cooking, starting a fire to cook, plucking a fruit, or any conduct that harms living beings[88] |
| 2.Satya | To speak the truth, to remain silent if his speaking the truth will lead to injury to living beings[89] | |
| 3.Asteya | Not to take anything unless given, and not accepting anything more than what is necessary and needed[90] | |
| 4.Brahmacharya | No sex, no natural or unnatural sexual gratification through action (viewing, participating, encouraging), words (hearing, reciting, reading, writing), or thoughts[91] | |
| 5.Aparigraha | Renunciation of all worldly things, property, want, and all possessions external to soul[92] | |
| Samiti- Regulations[93][94] | 6.irya | Walk carefully on much trodden paths, after viewing land to the extent of four cubits (2 yards). Do not walk in the dark or on the grass to avoid accidental injury to other living beings.[95] He should not run to save himself if charged by a wild animal or if a violent person is about to injure him, as running can cause injury to other living beings.[95] |
| 7.bhasha | Avoid slander, back-biting, false speech. He must avoid intentionally long or short statements that mislead or help create misunderstanding, doubts, misinformation, hypocrisy, bad blood or conceit in his audience.[96] | |
| 8.esana | To never accept objectionable food nor eat more palatable items from those received.[97] | |
| 9.adana-nikshepana | Carefulness in the handling thepichchi (feather bundle to remove insects in his path) andkamandalu (hollow vegetable gourd to filter water) | |
| 10.pratishṭapan | To excrete body waste after carefully brushing aside insects and other living beings.[98] | |
| Indrinirodha[85] | 11–15. Control of the five senses | Shedding all attachment and aversion towards the sense objects pertaining to touch (sparśana), taste (rasana), smell (ghrāṇa), sight (cakśu), and hearing (śrotra). Thesadhu (monk) must eradicate all desires and activities that please the mind through his senses.[99] He must end all ties, relationships and entanglements with his family and friends before he renounced.[99] |
| Avasyakas – Essential observations[100][85] | 16.Sāmāyika | Practice equanimous dispassion towards everything for eighteenghari a day (1ghari = about 24 minutes)[99] |
| 17.stuti | Salute the divine (Tirthankaras) | |
| 18.vandana | Medidate upon and adoreacharyas,gurus, idols and images of gods[101][102][103] | |
| 19.Pratikramana | Confession, repentance and self-censure for having violated any vows and rules of conduct;[104] dissociate one's soul from any virtuous or evilkarmas, in the current or past lives. | |
| 20.Pratikhayan | Recite mantra that lists and promises future renunciation of food, drink and comforts and to forfend future faults[105] | |
| 21.Kayotsarga | Giving up attachment to the body for a limited period of time.[105] Typically, this is a standing naked and motionless posture of a form common inBahubali iconography.[106] | |
| Niyama- Rules[85][107] | 22.adantdhavan | Never clean teeth[108] |
| 23.bhushayan | Sleep on hard ground | |
| 24.asnāna | Never bathe[107] | |
| 25.stithi-bhojan | Eat food in standing posture, accept food in open palms (no utensils)[108] | |
| 26.ahara | Eat food once a day,[109] drink water only when eating meal[110] | |
| 27.keśa-lonch | To periodically pluck all hair on his body by his own hand.[111] | |
| 28. nudity | Remain completely nude all the time (digambara)[112] |
Digambara monks do not wear any clothes as it is considered to beparigraha (possession), which ultimately leads to attachment.[113] The monks carrypicchi, a broom made up of fallen peacock feathers for removing small insects to avoid causing injury andKamandalu (the gourd for carrying pure, sterilized water).[114][110] The head of all monastics is calledĀchārya, while the saintly preceptor of saints is theupādhyāya.[115] TheĀchārya has 36 primary attributes (mūla guņa) in addition to the 28 mentioned above.[85]
The monks performkayotsarga daily, in a rigid and immobile posture, with the arms held stiffly down, knees straight, and toes directed forward.[10]
Female monastics in Digambara tradition are known asaryikas.[116] Digambara nuns, unlike the monks in their tradition, wear clothes. Given their beliefs such as non-attachment and non-possession, the Digambara tradition has held that women cannot achieve salvation (moksha) as men can, and the best a nun can achieve is to be reborn as a man in the next rebirth.[1] The monks are held to be of higher status than nuns in Digambara monasteries, states Jeffery Long.[1] From the Digambara monk's perspective, both Digambara nuns and Śvetāmbara monastic community are simply more pious Jain laypeople, who do not or are unable to fully practice the Jain monastic vows.[117]
Digambara nuns are relatively rare in comparison to the nuns found in Śvetāmbara traditions. According to a 1970s and 1980s survey of Jain subtraditions, there were about 125 Digambara monks in India and 50 Digambara nuns.[118] This compared to 3,400 nuns and 1,200 monks in the Śvetāmbara tradition.[118]
TheDigambar Akhara, which along with otherakharas, also participates in various inter-sectarian (sampradaya) religious activities includingKumbh Melas, is completely unrelated to Digambar Jain tradition, even though they also practice nudity.[119]
TheDigambara Jains worship completely nude idols oftirthankaras (omniscient beings) andsiddha (liberated souls). Thetirthankara is represented either seated in yoga posture or standing in theKayotsarga posture.[120]
The truly "sky-clad" (digambara) Jaina statue expresses the perfect isolation of the one who has stripped off every bond. His is an absolute "abiding in itself," a strange but perfect aloofness, a nudity of chilling majesty, in its stony simplicity, rigid contours, and abstraction.[121]
_-Jain_Sculptures.JPG)
In 1124 CE, a fierce debate betweenŚvetāmbaras and Digambaras happened. The background of the debate goes back to the 1124 CEcāturmāsya of Ācārya Vādidevasūri, a celebrated disciple of Ācārya Municandrasūri, a Śvetāmbara monk. Vādidevasūri was popular for winning debates against several philosophers in Western and North-Western India. Vādidevasūri was in Karnavati (modern-dayAhmedabad's old city) for his 4 months-long stay during the rainy season. During the same time, Kumudcandra, a Digambara monk and the preceptor of Jayakeśi, a Kadamba ruler, was also in the city for his 4 months-long stay during the rainy season. As per medieval Digambara records, Kumudcandra was of formidable intellect and very popular in the Digambara community.[122][123][124][125]As described in Ācārya Prabhācandrasūri'sPrabhāvakacarita, Kumudcandra and his disciples tried creating several problems in Vādidevasūri's sangha there. This was probably because the former could not digest the popularity of Vādidevasūri in the Śvetāmbara sangha there. The latter, however, maintained equanimity and did not retaliate. The situation got serious when Kumudcandra and some of his disciples harassed Sādhvī Sarasvatīśrījī, a senior nun in Vādidevasūri's sangha, while she was walking on the road. After mocking her, some disciples and palanquin-bearers of Kumudcandra demanded she dance if she wanted to pass. After the humiliation, she requested Vādidevasūri to take appropriate action and that if this went unanswered, the entire Jaina sangha would crumble.[122][123]Vādidevasūri wrote to Kumudcandra and informed him that he would have a debate with him in the court ofJayasimha Siddharaja, inPatan. Vādidevasūri wrote to the Jaina sangha at Patan, seeking permission to hold an open public debate between the Śvetāmbaras and the Digambaras. The sangha accepted his letter and wrote back that they would be highly honored to host the debate and that 300 male devotees and 700 female devotees would holdāyaṃbila fast until the day of the debate, praying for his victory.[122][123]
Vādidevasūri reached Patan, and was soon followed by Kumudcandra. The situation was heavily influenced by politics. Rājamātā Minaladevi was in unconditional support of Kumudcandra.[126] Apart from her, Kumudcandra was also supported by several courtiers and laymen.Prabhāvakacarita names Keśava as one of his supporters, while it names poet Śrīpāla and Bhānu as Vādidevasūri's supporters. Thāhaḍ and Nāgadeva, twoŚrāvakas of Vādidevasūri's sangha expressed their wish to spend as much wealth as required for this event. However, Vādidevasūri informed them that spending of any wealth was not required for this event. Thāhaḍ informed him that Kumudcandra's disciples had offered bribe to Gāngila, a minister inJayasimha Siddharaja's court. Vādidevasūri did not pay attention to it and told him that it would surely be won by the one who has the blessings of God and his preceptor.[127] The terms set by Rājamātā Minaladevi were unfair. If Vādidevasūri lost, all Śvetāmbaras would have convert to the Digambara sect. If Kumudcandra lost, the Digambaras would have to leaveJayasimha Siddharaja's kingdom.[128][129]
OnVaiśākhaPūrṇimā of 1124 CE, the debate began. Kumudcandra mocked a youngHemacandrasūri, who was accompanying Vādidevasūri, by calling him an infant and unfit for this debate. A witty Hemacandrasūri responded by saying that he was dressed, while an infant is one who is naked, aiming at Kumudcandra's Digambara lifestyle (staying nude) and that Kumudcandra, and not he, was an infant.[129][130][131] Several exchanges took place between both Vādidevasūri and Kumudcandra. The former was very well-versed with Jaina scriptures and tenets and made sure that no possibility was left unexplored during the debate. Within mere 16 days of the debate's conception, and several instances where Kumudcandra and his disciples faltered, the debate moved towards the subject of women's emancipation which Śvetāmbaras firmly believe in, while Digambaras don't. Digambaras, unable to provide a strong reason to support their heretical belief that women could not achieve emancipation, lost.[132][133] Similar faults were observed when the subject of kevalins' hunger came up.[134] Vādidevasūri was well-learned and astute and eventually, he triumphed.[124][129][135][136][137]Vādidevasūri remindedJayasimha Siddharaja that it was his duty to ensure no one insulted the defeated. The king ordered all Digambaras to immediately leave his kingdom and carried a royal procession to a nearby temple. Śvetāmbaras celebrated this victory and several devotees donated lakhs of gold coins in the temple. As a mark of respect, the ceremonial parasol over Vādidevasūri was carried by the king himself. This record is accepted as historically true, due to its narration found inPrabhāvakacarita, a historical text. While Vādidevasūri went on to write several scriptures and consecrate several major pilgrimage sites, Digambaras, once again, lost all presence in the kingdom of Gujarat.[138][129][136][139][140][141] Previously, Digambaras had lost another debate againstĀcārya Bappabhattisuri over the ownership ofGirnar Jain temples.[142][143][144]
Other than rejecting or accepting different ancient Jain texts, Digambaras and Śvetāmbara differ in other significant ways such as:
These are as follows1. Ahimsa - nonviolence, non-injury, and absence of desire to harm any life forms. 2. Satya - truthful in one's thoughts, speech and action.3. Asteya - non-stealing". One must not steal, nor have the intent to steal, another's property through action, speech, and thoughts.4. Aparigraha - the virtue of non-possessiveness or non-greediness.
Mahavira inserted 5th vow ie Brahmacharya - sexual restraint or practice of celibacy. Renunciation of sex and marriage. This was thought to be understood to within 4th vow of Aparigraha, but was more specified as 5th vow of Brahmacharya.
Mahāvīra taught Five vows.[145][146][147] The Digambara sect disagrees with the Śvetāmbara interpretations,[148] and reject the theory of difference in Parshvanatha and Mahāvīra's teachings.[146] However, Digambaras as well as Śvetāmbaras follow Five vows as taught byMahavira. The difference is only that Śvetāmbaras believeParshvanatha taught one vow less (the Four vows exceptBrahmacharya) thanMahavira. However, monks of Śvetāmbara sect also follow all 5 vows as stated in theĀcārāṅga Sūtra.[149]
Padmanabh Jaini, a renownedJain scholar, after researching the scriptures of the Digambara sect described several points of critique: -[163]
Nalini Balbir, another renowned scholar ofJainism, has criticised the Digambara views on liberation of women and advocates for a more inclusive and gender-equal interpretation of the scriptures. She lists her criticism in the following manner: -
Balbir states that:[168]
The Digambara sect's view that women cannot achieve liberation in their present birth is a 'biological determinism' that is not supported by Jain scriptures. This view is a 'patriarchal interpretation' that has been 'superimposed' on the original teachings of Mahavira.
— Nalini Balbir, Women in Jainism (2005)
Kristi L. Wiley, a scholar ofJainism, has also criticized the Digambara sect's views on liberation of women. Specifically, she highlights the following points of critique:[169]
Scriptures of other religions and schools of thought such asBuddhism,Islam, andSikhism also criticize and condemn public nudity followed by Digambara monks.[170][171][172]
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
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