Diet in Hinduism signifies the diverse traditions found across theIndian subcontinent. Hindu scriptures promote avegetarian dietary ideal based on the concept ofahimsa—non-violence and compassion towards all beings.[1] According to aPew Research Center survey, 44% ofHindus say they are vegetarian.[2]
By mid-1st millennium BCE, all three major Indian religions – Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism – were championing non-violence as an ethical value, and something that affected one's rebirth. By about 200 CE, food and feasting on animal slaughter were widely considered as a form of violence against life forms, and became a religious and social taboo.[3][4]
Ralph Fitch, amerchant from London and one of the earliest English travellers to India, wrote a letter home in 1580 stating:
They have a very strange order among them ... They eat no flesh, but live by roots and rice and milk.[5]
Evidence from theVedas suggests the diet of the Vedic people consisted of cereals, initially barley but later dominated by rice, pulses such asmāsha (urad),mudga (moong), and masūra (masoor), vegetables such as lotus roots, lotus stem, bottle gourd and milk products, mainly of cows, but also of buffaloes and goats.[6] The Vedas describe animals including bulls, horses, rams and goats being sacrificed and eaten.[7] Although cows held an elevated position in the Vedas,[8] barren cows were also sacrificed. Even then, the wordaghnyā ('not to be eaten', 'inviolable') is used for cows multiple times, with some Rigvedic composers considering the whole bovine species, both cows and bulls, inviolable.[7]
Steven J. Rosen suggests that flesh might have been eaten only as part of ritual sacrifices and not otherwise.[9] Acts of animal sacrifice were not fully accepted since there were signs of unease and tension owing to the 'gory brutality of sacrificial butchery' dating back to as early as the older Vedas.[10] The earliest reference to the idea ofahimsa ornon-violence to animals (pashu-ahimsa) in any literature, apparently in a moral sense, is found in the Kapisthala Katha Samhita of theYajurveda (KapS 31.11), written about the 8th century BCE.[11] TheShatapatha Brahmana contains one of the earliest statements against eating flesh, and theChāndogya Upaniṣad, has an injunction against killing 'all living entities'. Injunctions against flesh-eating also appear in theDharmasutras.[12]
Vegetarianism in ancient India
In that country they do not keep pigs and fowls, and do not sell live cattle; in the markets there are no butchers' shops and no dealers in intoxicating drink.
According to Kane, one who is about to eat food should greet the food when it is served to him, should honour it, never speak ill, and never find fault in it.[14][15]
The Dharmasastra literature, statesPatrick Olivelle, admonishes "people not to cook for themselves alone", offer it to the gods, to forefathers, to fellow human beings as hospitality and as alms to the monks and needy.[14] Olivelle claims all living beings are interdependent in matters of food and thus food must be respected, worshipped and taken with care.[14] Olivelle states that the Shastras recommend that when a person sees food, he should fold his hands, bow to it, and say a prayer of thanks.[14]
The reverence for food reaches a state of extreme in the renouncer or monk traditions in Hinduism.[14] The Hindu tradition views procurement and preparation of food as necessarily a violent process, where other life forms and nature are disturbed, in part destroyed, changed and reformulated into something edible and palatable. The mendicants (sannyasin, ascetics) avoid being the initiator of this process, and therefore depend entirely on begging for food that is left over of householders.[14] In pursuit of their spiritual beliefs, states Olivelle, the "mendicants eat other people's left overs".[14] If they cannot find left overs, they seek fallen fruit or seeds left in field after harvest.[14]
The foresthermits of Hinduism, on the other hand, do not beg for left overs.[14] Their food is wild and uncultivated. Their diet would consist mainly of fruits, roots, leaves, and anything that grows naturally in the forest.[14] They avoided stepping on plowed land, lest they hurt a seedling. They attempted to live a life that minimizes, preferably eliminates, the possibility of harm to any life form.[14]
One can never obtain meat without causing injury to living beings... he should, therefore, abstain from meat. Reflecting on how meat is obtained and on how embodied creatures are tied up and killed, he should quit eating any kind of meat... The man who authorises, the man who butchers, the man who slaughters, the man who buys or sells, the man who cooks, the man who serves, and the man who eats – these are all killers. There is no greater sinner than a man who, outside of an offering to gods or ancestors, wants to make his own flesh thrive at the expense of someone else's.
— Manusmriti, 5.48-5.52, translated byPatrick Olivelle[16]
TheManusmriti's discussion on flesh-eating contains 25 verses condemning the consumption of flesh, bracketed by 3 verses defending the practice in the context of Vedic sacrifices.[17] Commentators starting withMedhātithi interpret the verses to mean that flesh-eating is prohibited generally, and only permitted in the presence of mitigating circumstances, such as danger to life.[18]
TheMahabharata contains numerous stories glorifying non-violence towards animals and has some of the strongest statements against slaughter of animals—three chapters of the epic are dedicated to the evils of flesh-eating.Bhishma declares compassion to be the highest religious principle, and compares eating of animal flesh to eating the flesh of one's son. Nominally acknowledging Manu's authorisation of flesh-eating in sacrificial context, Bhisma explains toYudhishthira that "one who abstains from doing so acquires the same merit as that accrued from the performance of even a horse sacrifice" and that "those desirous of heaven perform sacrifice with seeds instead of animals". It is stated in Mahabharata that animal sacrifices were introduced only when people began to resort to violence in thetreta yuga, a less pure and compassionate age, and were not present in thesatya yuga, 'the golden age'.[19]
TheTirukkuṛaḷ, another ancient Indian text of Hindu or Jain origin, emphasizes ahimsa and insists onmoral vegetarianism orveganism.[20]: 101 Originally written in the South Indian language ofTamil, the text states moderate diet as a virtuous lifestyle and criticizes "non-vegetarianism" in itsPulaan Maruthal (abstinence from flesh or meat) chapter, through verses 251 through 260.[21][22][23] Verse 251, for instance, questions "how can one be possessed of kindness, who, to increase his own flesh, eats the flesh of other creatures." It also says that "the wise, who are devoid of mental delusions, do not eat the severed body of other creatures" (verse 258), suggesting that "flesh is nothing but the despicable wound of a mangled body" (verse 257). It continues to say that not eating flesh is a practice more sacred than the most sacred religious practices ever known (verse 259) and that only those who refrain from killing and eating the kill are worthy of veneration (verse 260). This text, written before 400 CE, and sometimes called the TamilVeda, discusses eating habits and its role in a healthy life (Mitahara), dedicating Chapter 95 ofBook II to it.[24] TheTirukkuṛaḷ states in verses 943 through 945, "eat in moderation, when you feel hungry, foods that are agreeable to your body, refraining from foods that your body finds disagreeable".Valluvar also emphasizes overeating has ill effects on health, in verse 946, as "the pleasures of health abide in the man who eats moderately. The pains of disease dwell with him who eats excessively."[24][25][26][27]
ThePuranic texts fiercely oppose violence against animals in many places "despite following the pattern of being constrained by the Vedic imperative to nominally accept it in sacrificial contexts". The most important Puranic text, theBhagavata Purana goes farthest in repudiating animal sacrifice—refraining from harming all living beings is considered the highestdharma. The text states that the sin of harming animals cannot be washed away by performing "sham sacrifices", just as "mud cannot be washed away by mud". It graphically presents the horrific karmic reactions accrued from the performance of animal sacrifices—those who mercilessly cook animals and birds go tokumbhipaka and are fried in boiling oil and those who perform sham sacrifices are themselves cut to pieces inviśasana hell. TheSkanda Purana states that the sages were dismayed by animal sacrifice and considered it againstdharma, claiming that sacrifice is supposed to be performed with grains and milk. It narrates that animal sacrifice was only permitted to feed the population during a famine, yet the sages did not slaughter animals even as they died of starvation. TheMatsya Purana contains a dialogue between sages who disapprove of violence against animals, preferring rites involving oblations of fruits and vegetables. The text states that the negative karma accrued from violence against animals far outweighs any benefits.[28]
A distinction traditionally exists between vegetarian and non-vegetarian castes; whileBrahmins and merchant castes were usually vegetarian, dominant castes that held a monopoly on power, such asRajputs, tended to be non-vegetarian. A vegetarian diet was considered ritually purer, whereas a non-vegetarian diet was seen as necessary for the exercise of power through force.[29]
M. N. Srinivas and other subsequent authors developed the idea ofSanskritisation, arguing that marginalised individuals and communities adopt vegetarianism in order to gain prestige or improve their status in the caste hierarchy.[30] Amit Desai criticises this framework as a "misreading of the significance of vegetarianism result[ing] from a disengagement from the view of the subaltern".[31]
According to a 2021Pew Research Center survey, 44% of Hindus say they are vegetarian, and another 39% restrict their consumption of flesh in some way.[2]
Vegetarianism is a dietary ideal among many Hindus, based on the concept ofahimsa—non-violence and compassion towards all beings.[1] It is also consideredsattvic, associated with qualities such as goodness, balance, and serenity that are conducive to spiritual progress.[32][33]
Lacto-vegetarianism is favoured by many Hindus; the diet includes milk-based foods and all non-animal derived foods, but excludes meat and eggs.[34] Reasons for adopting such a diet include the principle of nonviolence (ahimsa) applied to animals,[35] the intention to offer only vegetarian food to a Hindu's preferred deity and then to receive it back asprasāda, and the conviction that non-vegetarian food is detrimental for the mind and for spiritual development.[32][36]
A typical modern urban Hindu lacto-vegetarian meal is based on a combination of grains such asrice andwheat,legumes, green vegetables, anddairy products.[37] Depending on the geographical region, the staples may also includemillet-based flatbreads. Fat derived from slaughtered animals is avoided.[38]
A number of Hindus, particularly those following theVaishnava tradition, refrain from eatingonions andgarlic, either totally or during theChaturmasya period (roughly July to November of theGregorian calendar).[39] InMaharashtra, some Hindu families do not eat anyeggplant preparations during this period either.[40] Followers of theInternational Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON, colloquially known as the Hare Krishnas) abstain from meat, fish, and fowl. Members of the relatedPushtimargi sect also avoid certain vegetables such as onion, mushrooms, and garlic out of the belief that these aretamasic (producing dullness, lethargy, and inertia).[38][41] The mainly GujaratiSwaminarayan movement staunchly adheres to a diet devoid of meat, eggs, seafood, onions, and garlic.[42]
A significant portion of Hindus are non-vegetarians,[43] although even those who identify as non-vegetarian eat very little meat. India has significantly lower meat consumption than other regions of the world.[44] Non-vegetarian Indians mostly preferpoultry, fish, otherseafood, goat, and sheep as their sources of meat.[45] In Eastern and coastal south-western regions of India, fish and seafood are the staple of most of the local communities.[46][47] As cowsare considered sacred, many Hindus avoid eating the flesh of cows, and view this restriction as essential; in the Pew Research Center survey, 72% of Hindus said that someone who does not follow it cannot be a Hindu.[2]
The Hindu calendar has many festivals and religious observations, and dishes specific to that festival are prepared.[48][49]
A material offering to a deity is callednaivedya, 'offering of food', it is tasted by the deity and becomesbhoga, 'tasted', and the food is then returned as a gift and distributed among the devotees asprasāda; these terms are often used interchangeably.[50] Vaiṣṇava andŚaiva offerings are typically vegetarian, whereas someŚākta practices include non-vegetarian offerings,involving animal sacrifices.[51]
Hindus prepare special dishes for different festivals. Kheer and Halwa are two desserts popular for Diwali.Puran poli andGujia are prepared forHoli in different parts of India.[52][53]
Hindu people fast on certain days such asEkadashi, in honour ofVishnu or hisavatars:Chaturthi in honour ofGanesha,Pradosha in honour ofShiva andParvati,Monday in honour of Shiva,Saturday in honour ofHanuman orShani,Tuesday in honour of Hanuman, as well asKali,Parvati,Kartikeya, andGanesha,Sunday in honour ofSurya,Thursday in honour of Vishnu or hisavatars,Dattatreya, andBrihaspati,Wednesday in honour ofKrishna,Vithoba, Ganesha andBudha andFriday in honour ofMahadevi,Durga,Kali,Mariamman,Lakshmi,Sita,Radha,Rukmini,Saraswati, andSantoshi Mata.[54][55][56] Only certain kinds of food are allowed to be eaten during the fasting period. These include milk and other dairy products such ascurd, fruit and starchy Western food items such assago,[57]potatoes,[58] purple-redsweet potatoes,amaranth seeds,[59]nuts andshama millet.[60] Popular fasting dishes include Farari chevdo,Sabudana Khichadi orpeanut soup.[61]
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)| Dieting |
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nutrition |
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Nutritional advice | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Philosophy |
|  | |||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Texts |
| ||||||||||||||||||
| Deities |
| ||||||||||||||||||
| Practices |
| ||||||||||||||||||
| Related | |||||||||||||||||||
