The area of Dhaka has been inhabited since the first millennium. Anearly modern city developed from the 17th century as a provincial capital and commercial centre of theMughal Empire. Dhaka was the capital of aproto-industrializedMughal Bengal for 75 years (1608–39 and 1660–1704). It was the hub of themuslin trade in Bengal and one of the most prosperous cities in the world. The Mughal city was named Jahangirnagar (The City of Jahangir) in honour of the erstwhile ruling emperorJahangir.[26][27][28] The city's wealthy Mughal elite included princes and the sons of Mughal emperors. The pre-colonial city's glory peaked in the 17th and 18th centuries, when it was home to merchants from acrossEurasia. ThePort of Dhaka was a major trading post for both riverine and seaborne trade. The Mughals decorated the city with well-laid gardens, tombs, mosques, palaces, and forts. The city was once called theVenice of the East.[29]
UnderBritish rule, the city saw the introduction ofelectricity,railways,cinemas, Western-style universities and colleges and a modernwater supply. It became an important administrative and educational centre in the British Raj, as the capital ofEastern Bengal and Assam province after 1905.[30] In 1947, after the end of British rule, the city became the administrative capital ofEast Pakistan. It was declared the legislative capital of Pakistan in 1962. In 1971, following theLiberation War, it became the capital of independent Bangladesh. In 2008, Dhaka celebrated 400 years as a municipal city.[31][32][33]
Agamma+ global city,[34] Dhaka is the centre of political, economic and cultural life in Bangladesh. It is the seat of theGovernment of Bangladesh, manyBangladeshi companies, and leading Bangladeshi educational, scientific, research, and cultural organizations. Since its establishment as a modern capital city, the population, area and social and economic diversity of Dhaka have grown tremendously. The city is now one of the most densely industrialized regions in the country. The city accounts for 35% ofBangladesh's economy.[35] TheDhaka Stock Exchange has over 750 listed companies. Dhaka hosts over 50diplomatic missions; as well as the headquarters ofBIMSTEC,CIRDAP, and theInternational Jute Study Group. Dhaka has a renowned culinary heritage. The city's culture is known for itsrickshaws, Kacchi Biryani,art festivals, street food, and religious diversity. Dhaka's most prominent architectural landmark is the modernistJatiyo Sangshad Bhaban; while it has a heritage of 2000 buildings from the Mughal and British periods.[36] The city is associated with two Nobel laureates. Dhaka's annual Bengali New Year parade, itsJamdani sari, and its rickshaw art have been recognized byUNESCO as the intangible cultural heritage of humanity.[37][38][39] The city has produced many writers and poets in several languages, especially in Bengali and English.
The origins of the name Dhaka are uncertain. It may derive from thedhak tree, which was once common in the area, or fromDhakeshwari, the 'patron Hindu goddess' of the region.[40][41] Another popular theory states that Dhaka refers to amembranophone instrument,dhak which was played by order ofSubahdarIslam Khan I during the inauguration of the Bengal capital in 1610.[42]
Some references also say it was derived from aPrakrit dialect calledDhaka Bhasa; or Dhakkaiyya, used in theRajtarangini for a watch station; or it is the same as Davaka, mentioned in theAllahabad pillar inscription ofSamudragupta as an eastern frontier kingdom.[43] According toRajatarangini written by a Kashmiri Brahman,Kalhana,[44] the region was originally known asDhakka. The wordDhakka meanswatchtower.Bikrampur andSonargaon—the earlier strongholds of Bengal rulers were situated nearby. So Dhaka was most likely used as the watchtower for fortification purpose.[44]
The history of urban settlements in the area of modern-day Dhaka dates to the first millennium.[45] The region was part of the ancient district ofBikrampur, which was ruled by theSena dynasty.[46] UnderIslamic rule, it became part of the historic district ofSonargaon, the regional administrative hub of theDelhi and theBengal Sultanates.[47] TheGrand Trunk Road passed through the region, connecting it withNorth India, Central Asia and the south-eastern port city ofChittagong. Before Dhaka, the capital of Bengal wasGour.[48] Even earlier capitals includedPandua,Bikrampur andSonargaon. The latter was also the seat ofIsa Khan and his sonMusa Khan, who both headed a confederation of twelve chieftains that resisted Mughal expansion in eastern Bengal during the late 16th century. Due to a change in the course of theGanges, the strategic importance of Gour was lost. Dhaka was viewed with strategic importance due to the Mughal need to consolidate control in eastern Bengal. The Mughals also planned to extend their empire beyond intoAssam andArakan. Dhaka andChittagong became the eastern frontiers of the Mughal Empire.
Dhaka became the capital of the Mughal province of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa in 1610 with a jurisdiction covering modern-day Bangladesh andeastern India, including the modern-dayIndian states ofWest Bengal,Bihar andOrissa. This province was known asBengal Subah. The city was founded during the reign ofEmperor Jahangir. EmperorShah Jahan visited Dhaka in 1624 and stayed in the city for a week, four years before he became emperor in 1628.[49] Dhaka became one of the richest and greatest cities in the world during the early period ofBengal Subah (1610–1717). The prosperity of Dhaka reached its peak during the administration of governorShaista Khan (1644–1677 and 1680–1688). Rice was then sold at eight maunds per rupee.Thomas Bowrey, an English merchant sailor who visited the city between 1669 and 1670, wrote that the city was 40 miles in circuit. He estimated the city to be more populated thanLondon with 900,000 people.[50]
Bengal became the economic engine of the Mughal Empire. Dhaka played a key role in theproto-industrialization of Bengal. It was the centre of themuslin trade in Bengal, leading to muslin being called "Daka" in distant markets as far away asCentral Asia.[51] Mughal India depended on Bengali products like rice, silk and cotton textiles. European East India Companies from Britain, Holland, France, and Denmark also depended on Bengali products. Bengal accounted for 40% ofDutch imports from Asia, with many products being sold to Dutch ships in Bengali harbours and then transported toBatavia in theDutch East Indies. Bengal accounted for 50% of textiles and 80% of silks in Dutch textile imports from Asia.[52] Silk was also exported to premodernJapan.[53] The region had a largeshipbuilding industry which supplied theMughal Navy. The shipbuilding output of Bengal during the 16th and 17th centuries stood at 223,250 tons annually, compared to 23,061 tons produced by North America from 1769 to 1771.[54] The Mughals decorated the city with well-laid-out gardens.Caravanserai included theBara Katra andChoto Katra. The architect of the palatial Bara Katra was Abul Qashim Al Hussaini Attabatayi Assemani.[55] According to inscriptions in the Bangladesh National Museum, the ownership of Bara Katra was entrusted to an Islamicwaqf.[55] The Bara Katra also served as a residence for Mughal governors, including PrinceShah Shuja (the son of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan).[55] Dhaka was home to an array of Mughal bureaucrats and military officials, as well as members of the imperial family. The city was guarded byMughal artillery like theBibi Mariam Cannon (Lady Mary Cannon).
Islam Khan I was the first Mughal governor to reside in the city.[56] Khan named it "Jahangirnagar" (The City of Jahangir) in honour of the Emperor Jahangir. The name was dropped soon after the English conquered. The main expansion of the city took place under GovernorShaista Khan. The city then measured 19 by 13 kilometres (11.8 by 8.1 mi), with a population of nearly one million.[57] Dhaka became home to one of the richest elites in Mughal India.[58]The construction ofLalbagh Fort was commenced in 1678 byPrince Azam Shah, who was the governor of Bengal, a son ofEmperor Aurangzeb and a futureMughal Emperor himself. TheLalbagh Fort was intended to be the viceregal residence of Mughal governors in eastern India. Before the fort's construction could be completed, the prince was recalled by EmperorAurangzeb. The fort's construction was halted by Shaista Khan after the death of his daughterPari Bibi, who is buried in a tomb in the centre of the unfinished fort.Pari Bibi, whose name meansFairy Lady, was legendary for her beauty, engaged to Prince Azam Shah, and a potential future Mughal empress before her premature death.[59] Internal conflict in the Mughal court cut short Dhaka's growth as an imperial city. Prince Azam Shah's rivalry withMurshid Quli Khan resulted in Dhaka losing its status as the provincial capital. In 1717, the provincial capital was shifted toMurshidabad where Murshid Quli Khan declared himself as theNawab of Bengal.
Court of theNaib Nazim of Dhaka, the governor of Dhaka, Chittagong and Comilla under the Nawabs of Bengal
Under the Nawabs of Bengal, theNaib Nazim of Dhaka was in charge of the city. TheNaib Nazim was the deputy governor of Bengal. He also dealt with the upkeep of the Mughal Navy. The Naib Nazim was in charge of the Dhaka Division, which included Dhaka,Comilla, and Chittagong. Dhaka Division was one of the four divisions under the Nawabs of Bengal. The Nawabs of Bengal allowed European trading companies to establish factories across Bengal. The region then became a hotbed for European rivalries. The British moved to oust the last independent Nawab of Bengal in 1757, who was allied with the French. Due to the defection of Nawab's army chiefMir Jafar to the British side, the last Nawab lost theBattle of Plassey.[citation needed]
After theBattle of Buxar in 1765, theTreaty of Allahabad allowed the British East India Company to become the tax collector in Bengal on behalf of the Mughal Emperor in Delhi. The Naib Nazim continued to function until 1793 when all his powers were transferred to the East India Company. The city formally passed to the control of the East India Company in 1793. British military raids damaged a lot of the city's infrastructure.[60] The military conflict caused a sharp decline in the urban population.[61] Dhaka's fortunes received a boost with connections to the mercantile networks of theBritish Empire.[62] With the dawn of theIndustrial Revolution inBritain, Dhaka became a leading centre of thejute trade, as Bengal accounted for the largest share of the world'sjute production.[63]But the British neglected Dhaka's industrial and urban development until the late 19th century. Income from the pre-colonial, proto-industrialized textile industry dried up. Bengali weavers went out of business after the imposition of a 75% tax on the export of cotton from Bengal,[64] as well as the surge in imports of cheap, British-manufactured fabrics after the advent of the spinning mule and steam power.[citation needed] The rapid growth of the colonial capitalCalcutta contributed to the decline in Dhaka's population and economy in the early 1800s. In 1824, an Anglican bishop described Dhaka as a "City of magnificent ruins".[65]
Dhaka hosted factories of the English East India Company, theDutch East India Company,[66] andFrench East India Company.[67] The property of theAhsan Manzil was initially bought by the French for their factory and later sold to the Dhaka Nawab Family. The Portuguese were reportedly responsible for introducingcheese.[68][69] Dhaka saw an influx of migrants during the Mughal Empire. AnArmenian community from theSafavid Empire settled in Dhaka and was involved in the city's textile trade, paying a 3.5% tax.[70] The Armenians were very active in the city's social life. They opened thePogose School.Marwaris were the Hindu trading community. Dhaka also became home toJews and Greeks.[71][72] The city has aGreek memorial. Several families of Dhaka's elite spokeUrdu and included Urdu poets.Persians also settled in the city to serve as administrators and military commanders of the Mughal government in Bengal.[73] The legacy of cosmopolitan trading communities lives on in the names of neighbourhoods in Old Dhaka, includingFarashganj (French Bazaar),Armanitola (Armenian Quarter) and Postogola (Portuguese Quarter).
According to those who lived in the historic city, "Dhaka was a courtly, genteel town – the very last flowering, in their telling, of Mughal etiquette and sensibility. It is this history that is today still reflected in the faded grandeur of the old city, now crumbling due to decades of neglect. The narrow, winding, high-walled lanes and alleyways, the old high-ceilinged houses with verandas and balconies, the old neighbourhoods, the graveyards and gardens, the mosques, the grand old mansions – these are all still there if one goes looking".[74] Railway stations, postal departments, civil service posts and river port stations were often staffed byAnglo-Indians.[75]
The city's hinterland supplied rice, jute,gunny sacks, turmeric, ginger, leather hides, silk, rugs,saltpeter,[76] salt,[77] sugar,indigo, cotton, and iron.[78] British opium policy in Bengal contributed to theOpium Wars withChina. American traders collected artwork, handicrafts, terracotta, sculptures, religious and literary texts, manuscripts, and military weapons from Bengal. Some objects from the region are on display in thePeabody Essex Museum.[78] The increase in international trade led to profits for many families in the city, allowing them to buy imported luxury goods.
During theIndian mutiny of 1857, the city witnessed revolts by theBengal Army.[79]Direct rule by the British crown was established following the successful quelling of the mutiny. It bestowed privileges on the Dhaka Nawab Family, which dominated the city's political and social elite. TheDhaka Cantonment was established as a base for theBritish Indian Army. The British developed the modern city aroundRamna,Shahbag Garden, andVictoria Park. Dhaka got its own version of thehansom cab as public transport in 1856.[80] The number of carriages increased from 60 in 1867 to 600 in 1889.[80]
A horse racingderby taking place in Dhaka in 1890.Lord Curzon (standing far left) with early automobiles inShahbag in 1904
A modern civic water system was introduced in 1874.[81] In 1885, the Dhaka State Railway was opened with a 144 km metre gauge (1000 mm) rail line connectingMymensingh and thePort of Narayanganj through Dhaka.[82] The city later became a hub of theEastern Bengal State Railway.[82] The firstfilm shown in Dhaka was screened on the Riverfront Crown Theatre on 17 April 1898.[83] The film show was organized by the Bedford Bioscope Company.[83] The electricity supply began in 1901.[84]
This period is described as being "the colonial-era part of Dhaka, developed by the British during the early 20th century. Similar to colonial boroughs the length and breadth of the Subcontinent, this development was typified by stately government buildings, spacious tree-lined avenues, and sturdy white-washed bungalows set amidst always overgrown (the British never did manage to fully tame the landscape) gardens. Once upon a time, this was the new city; and even though it is today far from the ritziest part of town, the streets here are still wider and the trees more abundant and the greenery more evident than in any other part".[74]
Dhaka's fortunes changed in the early 20th century. British neglect of Dhaka's urban development was overturned with thefirst partition of Bengal in 1905, which restored Dhaka's status as a regional capital. The city became the seat of government forEastern Bengal and Assam, with a jurisdiction covering most of modern-day Bangladesh and all of what is nowNortheast India. The partition was the brainchild ofLord Curzon, who finally acted on British ideas for partitioning Bengal to improve administration, education, and business. Dhaka became the seat of theEastern Bengal and Assam Legislative Council. While Dhaka was the main capital throughout the year,Shillong acted as the summer retreat of the administration. Lieutenant Governors were in charge of the province. They resided in Dhaka. The Lt Governors included SirBampfylde Fuller (1905–1906), Sir Lancelot Hare (1906–1911), andSir Charles Stuart Bayley (1911–1912). Their legacy lives on in the names of three major thoroughfares in modern Dhaka, including Hare Road,[86]Bayley Road, and Fuller Road.[87] The period saw the construction of stately buildings, including the High Court and Curzon Hall. The city was home to diverse groups of people, includingArmenians,Jews,[71] Anglo-Indians and Hindus. The Hindus included bothMarwaris andBengali Hindus, with a plurality emerging by 1941 and engaged in professions like teaching, medicine, law, and business.[88]
On the political front, partition allowed Dhaka to project itself as the standard-bearer of Muslim communities inBritish India; as opposed to the heavily Hindu-dominated city of Calcutta.[63] In 1906, theAll India Muslim League was founded in the city during a conference on liberal education hosted by theNawab of Dhaka and theAga Khan III. The Muslim population in Dhaka and eastern Bengal generally favoured partition in the hopes of getting better jobs and educational opportunities. Many Bengalis, however, opposed the bifurcation of the ethnolinguistic region. The partition was annulled by an announcement from KingGeorge V during theDelhi Durbar in 1911. The British decided to reunite Bengal while thecapital of India was shifted toNew Delhi from Calcutta.
As a "splendid compensation" for the annulment of partition,[90] the British gave the city a newly formed university in the 1920s. TheUniversity of Dhaka was initially modelled on the residential style of theUniversity of Oxford. It became known as theOxford of the East because of its residential character. Like Oxford, students in Dhaka were affiliated with their halls of residence instead of their academic departments (this system was dropped after 1947 and students are now affiliated with academic departments).[91][92] The university's faculty included scientistSatyendra Nath Bose (who is the namesake of theHiggs boson); linguistMuhammad Shahidullah,Sir A F Rahman (the first Bengali vice-chancellor of the university); and historianR. C. Majumdar.[92] The university was established in 1921 by theImperial Legislative Council. It started with three faculties and 12 departments, covering the subjects of Sanskrit, Bengali, English,liberal arts, history, Arabic, Islamic Studies, Persian, Urdu, philosophy, economics, politics, physics, chemistry, mathematics, and law.
At the time of the partition of India, many rich Hindu families relocated to West Bengal. Their properties were seized by the state under laws that eventually became known as theVested Property Act.[93]
NASA animation showing the urban growth of Dhaka from 1972 to 2001.Aerial view of Dhaka's main CBD in the 1980sA suburban residential neighbourhood in the 1980s
The development of the "real city" began after thepartition of India.[74] After partition, Dhaka became known as thesecond capital ofPakistan.[74][94] This was formalized in 1962 whenAyub Khan declared the city as the legislative capital under the1962 constitution. New neighbourhoods began to spring up in formerly barren and agrarian areas. These includedDhanmondi (rice granary), Katabon (thorn forest), Kathalbagan (jackfruit garden),Kalabagan (banana garden),Segunbagicha (teak garden) andGulshan (flower garden).[74][95] Living standards rapidly improved from the pre-partition standards.[96] The economy began to industrialize. On the outskirts of the city, theworld's largest jute mill was built. The mill produced jute goods which were in high demand during theKorean War.[97] People began building duplex houses. In 1961,Queen Elizabeth II andPrince Philip witnessed the improved living standards of Dhaka's residents.[98] TheIntercontinental hotel, designed byWilliam B. Tabler, was opened in 1966. Estonian-American architectLouis I. Kahn was enlisted to design the Dhaka Assembly, which was originally intended to be the federal parliament of Pakistan and later became independent Bangladesh's parliament. TheEast Pakistan Helicopter Service connected the city to regional towns.
The early period of political turbulence was seen between 1947 and 1952, particularly theBengali Language Movement. From the mid-1960s, theAwami League's 6-point autonomy demands began giving rise to pro-independence aspirations acrossEast Pakistan. In 1969,Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was released from prison amid a mass upsurge which led to the resignation of Ayub Khan in 1970. The city had an influential press with prominent newspapers like thePakistan Observer,Ittefaq,Forum, and theWeekly Holiday. During the political and constitutional crisis in 1971, themilitary junta led byYahya Khan refused to transfer power to the newly elected National Assembly, causing mass riots, civil disobedience, and a movement forself-determination. On 7 March 1971,Awami League leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman addressed a massive public gathering at theRamna Race Course Maidan in Dhaka, in which he warned of an independence struggle.[100][101] Subsequently, East Pakistan came under anon-co-operation movement against the Pakistani state. On Pakistan's Republic Day (23 March 1971),Bangladeshi flags were hoisted throughout Dhaka in a show of resistance.[102]
On 25 March 1971, thePakistan Army launched military operations underOperation Searchlight against the population of East Pakistan.[103] Dhaka bore the brunt of the army's atrocities, witnessing agenocide and a campaign of wide-scale repression, with the arrest, torture, and murder of the city's civilians, students,intelligentsia, political activists and religious minorities. The army facedmutinies from theEast Pakistan Rifles and the Bengali police.[104] Large parts of the city were burnt and destroyed, including Hindu neighbourhoods.[103] Much of the city's population was either displaced or forced to flee to the countryside.[105] Dhaka was struck with numerous air raids by theIndian Air Force inDecember.[106] The Pakistan Eastern Commandsurrendered to Lt. Gen.Jagjit Singh Aurora at theRamna Race Course in Dhaka on 16 December 1971.[107]
In the 1990s and 2000s, Dhaka experienced improved economic growth and the emergence of affluent business districts and satellite towns.[111] Between 1990 and 2005, the city's population doubled from 6 million to 12 million.[112] There has been increasedforeign investment in the city, particularly in the financial and textile manufacturing sectors. Between 2008 and 2011, thegovernment of Bangladesh organized three years of celebrations to mark 400 years since Dhaka's founding as an early modern city.[31][32][33] But frequenthartals by political parties have greatly hampered the city's economy.[113] The hartal rate has declined since 2014. In some years, the city experienced a widespreadflash flood during the monsoon.
Dhaka is located in central Bangladesh at23°42′N90°22′E / 23.700°N 90.367°E /23.700; 90.367, on the eastern banks of theBuriganga River. The city lies on the lower reaches of theGanges Delta and covers a total area of 270 square kilometres (100 sq mi). Tropical vegetation and moist soils characterize the land, which is flat and close to sea level. This leaves Dhaka susceptible to flooding during themonsoon seasons owing to heavy rainfall andcyclones.[122] Due to its location on the lowland plain of the Ganges Delta, the city is fringed by extensive mangroves and tidal flat ecosystems.[123] Dhaka District is bounded by the districts ofGazipur,Tangail,Munshiganj,Rajbari,Narayanganj, andManikganj.
The city of Dhaka is built over a network of rivers. The city’s life is strongly intertwined with the rivers, as they are used for multiple purposes, including transportation.[124]
ExceptOld Dhaka, which is an oldbazaar-style neighbourhood, the layout of the city follows a grid pattern with organic development influenced by traditional South Asian as well as Middle Eastern and Western patterns. Growth of the city is largely unplanned and is focused on the northern regions and around the city centre, where many of the more affluent neighbourhoods may be found.[125] Most of the construction in the city consists of concretehigh-rise buildings. Middle-class and upper-class housing, along with commercial and industrial areas, occupy most of the city. However, nearly one third of Dhaka's population lives inslums, as of 2016 (see below).[119]
Much activity is centred around a few large roads, where road laws are rarely obeyed and street vendors and beggars are frequently encountered.[125][127]
For much of recent history, Dhaka was characterized by roadside markets and small shops that sold a wide variety of goods.[128] Recent years have seen the widespread construction of shopping malls.[129] Two of the largest shopping malls in the city and the wider South Asian region are theJamuna Future Park andBashundhara City.
Under theKöppen climate classification, Dhaka has atropical savanna climate (KöppenAw). The city has a distinct monsoonal season, with an annual average temperature of 26 °C (79 °F) and monthly means varying between 19 °C (66 °F) in January and 29 °C (84 °F) in May.[130] Approximately 87% of the average annual rainfall of 2,123 millimetres (83.6 inches) occurs between May and October.[130]
Climate data for Dhaka (1991–2020, extremes 1949-present)
Almost 10% of the city's area consists of water: There are 676 ponds and 43 canals.[119] TheBuriganga River flows past the southwest outskirts of Dhaka. Its average depth is 7.6 metres (25 ft) and its maximum depth is 18 metres (58 ft). It ranks among the most polluted rivers in the country.[120][121]
The city is surrounded by six interconnected river systems—the Buriganga andDhaleshwari in the southwest,Turag and Tongi Khal in the north, andBalu andSitalakhya in the east—which support trade, transport, and stormwater drainage.[135] However, the current state of thewater quality of the river network is very poor, due to the discharge of untreatedwastewater from households and industries.[124]
Pollution by a factory on the bank of theBuriganga near Dhaka in 2020
Increasing air and water pollution affects public health and the quality of life in the city.[137] Theair pollution is caused for example by vehicle traffic and congestion. Also, due to the unregulated manufacturing ofbricks and other causes, Dhaka has very high levels of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) air pollution.[138]
Water pollution is caused by the discharge of municipal wastewater from households and industry without treatment. As of 2011 only 20% of the city is connected to asewer system, whereas 80% is not connected.[119] As a result, the rivers in Dhaka have severepathogen pollution, as indicated by thefecal coliform count that is several hundred times higher than the recommended national and international standards of less than 200cfu per litre for bathing and swimming.[135] Chemical surveys in the rivers near Dhaka show extremely high organic pollution loading, highammonia, and very lowdissolved oxygen levels, which are close to zero in the dry season.[124]
In addition to the organic and pathogen pollution load from the 1.2 million m3 of untreated sewage, the rivers receive about 60,000 m3 of industrial effluent every day from nine major industrial clusters (as of 2021).[135] There are an estimated 500–700 wet processing anddyeingtextile factories releasing a range of chemicals including salts, dyes and bleaches, and 155tanneries dischargingheavy metals, includingchromium.[135]
Four of the rivers surrounding Dhaka—Buriganaga,Sitalakhya,Balu andTurag—are so polluted that they have been declared asecologically critical areas in 2009 by the Department of Environment. This makes them unsuitable for any human use.[135] Nevertheless, people living in low-income and slum areas still have a lot of direct contact with river water, exposing them to health risks. They use river water for dish washing, laundry, cleaning fish and vegetables, and personal washing, washing and dyeingdenim, washing fish baskets or plastic sheets, collecting plastic waste and fishing.[135] As a result, many of the immediate environmental burdens of river pollution are borne by these low-income residents.[135]
Water bodies andwetlands around Dhaka are facing destruction as these are being filled up to construct multi-storied buildings and other real estate developments. Coupled with pollution, such erosion of natural habitats threatens to destroy much of the regional biodiversity.[137]
The municipality of Dhaka was founded on 1 August 1864 and upgraded to "Metropolitan" status in 1978. In 1983, theDhaka City Corporation was created as a self-governing entity to govern Dhaka.[142]
Under a new act in 1993, an election was held in 1994 for the first elected Mayor of Dhaka.[143] The Dhaka City Corporation ran the affairs of the city until November 2011.[144]
In 2011,Dhaka City Corporation was split into two separate corporations –Dhaka North City Corporation andDhaka South City Corporation to ensure better civic facilities.[145] These two corporations are headed by two mayors, who are elected by direct vote of the citizen for 5 years. The area within city corporations was divided into several wards, each having an elected commissioner. In total, the city has 130 wards and 725mohallas.
DMP is responsible for maintaining law and order within the metro area. It was established in 1976. DMP has 56 police stations as administrative units.[147][148]
Unlike other megacities worldwide, Dhaka is serviced by over two dozen government organizations under different ministries. Lack of coordination among them and centralization of all powers by the Government of Bangladesh keeps the development and maintenance of the city in a chaotic situation.[149]
As the most densely industrialized region of the country, the Greater Dhaka Area accounts for 35% ofBangladesh's economy.[35] TheGlobalization and World Cities Research Network ranks Dhaka as agamma+ global city, in other words, one that is instrumental in linking their region into the world economy.[34] Major industrial areas areTejgaon,Shyampur andHazaribagh.[150] The city has a growing middle class, driving the market for modern consumer and luxury goods.[43][151] Shopping malls serve as vital elements in the city's economy. The city has historically attracted numerous migrant workers.[152]Hawkers, peddlers, small shops,rickshaw transport, roadside vendors and stalls employ a large segment of the population[152][153] – rickshaw drivers alone number as many as 400,000.[154] Half the workforce is employed in household and unorganized labour, while about 800,000 work in the textile industry. The unemployment rate in Dhaka was 23% in 2013.[155]
Almost all large local conglomerates have their corporate offices located in Dhaka.Microcredit also began here and the offices of the Nobel Prize-winningGrameen Bank[156] andBRAC (the largestnon-governmental development organization in the world) are based in Dhaka.[157] Urban developments have sparked a widespread construction boom; new high-rise buildings andskyscrapers have changed the city's landscape.[151] Growth has been especially strong in the finance, banking, manufacturing, telecommunications, and service sectors, while tourism, hotels, and restaurants continue as important elements of the Dhaka economy.[152]
Dhaka has rising traffic congestion and inadequate infrastructure; the national government has recently implemented a policy for rapid urbanization of surrounding areas and beyond by the introduction of a ten-year relief onincome tax for new construction of facilities and buildings outside Dhaka.[158]
The Dhaka metropolitan area boasts of severalcentral business districts (CBDs). In the southern part of the city, the riverfront ofOld Dhaka is home to many small businesses, factories, and trading companies. Near Old Dhaka liesMotijheel, which is the biggest CBD in Bangladesh. The Motijheel area developed in the 1960s.Motijheel is home to theBangladesh Bank, the nation's central bank; as well as the headquarters of the largest state-owned banks, includingJanata Bank,Pubali Bank,Sonali Bank andRupali Bank. By the 1990s, the affluent residential neighbourhoods ofGulshan,Banani andUttara in the northern part of the city became a major business centre and now hosts many international companies operating in Bangladesh. ThePurbachal New Town Project is planned as the city's future CBD.
The following is a list of the main CBDs in Dhaka.
The city, in combination with localities forming the wider metropolitan area, is home to over 22 million as of 2022[update].[162] The population is growing by an estimated 3.3% per year,[162] one of the highest rates among Asian cities.[152] The continuing growth reflects ongoing migration from rural areas to the Dhaka urban region, which accounted for 60% of the city's growth in the 1960s and 1970s. More recently, the city's population has also grown with the expansion of city boundaries, a process that added more than a million people to the city in the 1980s.[152] According to theFar Eastern Economic Review, Dhaka will be home to 25 million people by the end of 2025.[163]
This rapid population growth makes it difficult for the city government to provide the necessary infrastructure in a timely manner, e.g. for water supply, electricity and waste management.[119]
About 30% of Dhaka's population lives inslums (or unplanned urban settlements), as of 2016.[119] Estimates from 2011 and 2015 found that there are about "3 to 5 thousand slums and squatter settlements scattered all over the city".[119] It is often the new arrivals, peoplemigrating from rural areas, who end up living in slums. People only have very limited access to water,sanitation and other services in those slum areas.
Slums may be found in the outskirts and in less-visible areas such as alleyways.[164] As of 2021, the largest slum is inKamrangirchar, where about 600,000 people live in slum conditions.[135]
The city population is composed of people from virtually every region of Bangladesh. The long-standing inhabitants of the old city are known as Dhakaite and have a distinctive Bengali dialect and culture. Dhaka is also home to a large number ofBihari refugees, who are descendants of migrantMuslims from eastern India during 1947 and settled down in East Pakistan. The correct population ofBiharis living in the city is ambiguous, but it is estimated that there are at least 300,000 Urdu-speakers in all of Bangladesh, mostly residing in old Dhaka and in refugee camps in Dhaka, although official figures estimate only 40,000.[165][166][167] Between 15,000 and 20,000 of theRohingya,Santal,Khasi,Garo,Chakma andMandi tribal peoples reside in the city.[168]
Most residents of Dhaka speakBengali, the national language. Other than Standard Bengali which is used in business and education, most prominentBengali dialects spoken in the city include anUrban East Bengal Colloquial dialect,[169]andDhakaiya Kutti spoken in Old Dhaka.[170]English is spoken by a large segment of the population, especially for business purposes. The city has both Bengali and English newspapers.Urdu, includingDhakaiya Urdu, is spoken by members of several non-Bengali communities, including theBiharis.[171]
The literacy rate in Dhaka is also increasing quickly. It was estimated at 69.2% in 2001. The literacy rate had gone up to 74.6% by 2011[16] which is significantly higher than the national average of 72%.[172]
Islam is the dominant religion of the city, with 19.3 million of the city's population being Muslim, and a majority belonging to theSunni sect. There is also a smallShia sect, and anAhmadiya community.Hinduism is the second-largest religion numbering around 1.47 million adherents. Smaller segments represent 1% and practiseChristianity andBuddhism. In the city proper, over 8.5 million of the 8.9 million residents are Muslims, while 320,000 are Hindu and nearly 50,000 Christian.[174][173]
Motorcycles comprised half of Dhaka's registered vehicles in 2023,[187] while car ownership rate is only six per cent.[188] One of the world's least motorized cities,[189] the three-wheeledcycle rickshaw is the most popular and ubiquitous mode of transport, which accounted for 54 per cent of vehicle trips in 2011.[190] Dhaka is among the most congested cities in the world, and traffic was estimated to cost the local economyUS$6.5billion per year in 2020.[191] The average speed of a car travelling in the city is less than 7 kilometres per hour (4.3 mph).[192]Auto rickshaws powered bycompressed natural gas, often referred to by locals as "CNGs", are also a popular mode of transport.[193]
Clockwise from top-left: heavy rickshaw traffic in Dhaka, congested main road, Mirpur-Banani flyover and Dhaka yellow taxi.
The city is connected to other parts of the country through highway and railway links. Five of Bangladesh's eight majornational highways start from the city:N1,N2,N3,N5 andN8. Dhaka is also directly connected to the two longest routes of theAsian Highway Network:AH1 andAH2, as well as to theAH41 route. Highway links to the Indian cities ofKolkata,Agartala,Guwahati andShillong have been established by the BRTC and private bus companies, which also run regular international bus services to those cities from Dhaka.[194][195]
Cycle rickshaws and CNGauto-rickshaws are the main modes of transport within the metro area, with more than 1.5 million rickshaws running each day:[198] the highest number in any city in the world.[199] However, only around 220 thousand rickshaws are licensed by the city government.[198] Over 15,000 legally registered CNGs serve passengers in Dhaka, with thousands more operating illegally.[200]
Since 2016,Uber andPathao have dominated the ride-sharing market in Dhaka, which offer both car and motorcycle services.[201][202] Ride-sharing services have led to a decline in the use of CNG auto-rickshaws,[203] although Uber has expanded its services to include CNG auto-rickshaws in 2021.[204]
Buses carried about 1.9 million passengers per day in 2007.[205] Public buses in Dhaka are primarily operated by numerous private companies, with a minority run by the state-ownedBangladesh Road Transport Corporation (BRTC).[206]BRTC buses are red, based initially on theRoutemaster buses of London. There are three inter-district bus terminals in Dhaka, which are located in the city'sMohakhali, Saidabad, and Gabtoli areas. It is now planned to move three inter-district bus terminals outside the town.[207] Highway links to the Indian cities ofKolkata,Agartala,Guwahati andShillong have been established by the BRTC and private bus companies, which also run regular international bus services to those cities from Dhaka.[194]
Set to open in December 2024, the 20.5-kilometre (12.7 mi)Dhaka Bus Rapid Transit system is expected to reduce travel time from Dhaka to thesatellite town ofGazipur from as long as four hours to just 35–40 minutes.[208]
TheSadarghat River Port on the banks of theBuriganga River serves for the transport of goods and passengers upriver and to other ports in Bangladesh.[209] Inter-city and inter-district motor vessels and passenger ferry services are used by many people to travel riverine regions of the country from the city.Water bus services are available on the Buriganga River andHatirjheel and Gulshan lakes, providing connectivity via two routes,Tejgaon–Gulshan and Tejgaon–Rampura.[210]
The metro network is planned to contain six lines. Before the opening of the Dhaka Metro Rail, Dhaka was the biggest city in the world without a mass rapid transit system.[219] Unrelated to the metro, there is also a proposal to build asubway[220] and anorbital railway system.[221]
Biman Bangladesh in Hazrat Shahjalal International Airport
Hazrat Shahjalal International Airport (formerly Zia International Airport),[222] located 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) north of Dhaka city centre, is the largest and busiest international airport in the country.[223] Although built with an annual passenger-handling capacity of 8 million,[224] it handled more than 11 million passengers in 2023.[225] The average aircraft movement per day is around 330 flights.[226] It is the hub of mostBangladeshi airlines. Domestic service flies toChittagong,Sylhet,Rajshahi,Cox's Bazar,Jessore,Barisal, andSaidpur (Rangpur), and international services fly to major cities in Asia, Europe and the Middle East.[227][228] The airport's capacity is expected to more than double to 20 million once the modernthird terminal opens fully in October 2024.[229][needs update] According to the project design, the third terminal will have 12 boarding bridges and 16 conveyor belts. The terminal will have 115 check-in counters and 128 immigration desks.[230]
87% of the city's growing water demand is sourced fromgroundwater (as of 2021). This is because the extreme contamination of rivers and lakes makes surface water treatment economically and technologically unfeasible.[135] While around 20% of the daily demand of 2.4 billion litres of water is met with surface water from fivetreatment plants,[232] the groundwater table is falling at a rate of two to three metres per year.[231][232]
The Bangladesh Urban Informal Settlements Survey 2016 included a representative sample of 588 households across small, medium and largeslums in Dhaka. It showed that 68% of the households accessedpiped water through a shared connection within the slum compound. The poorest households shared a waterpoint with 43 other households on average compared to 23 sharers among the richest households. In terms ofsanitation, only 8% of the slum households had access to aflush toilet connected to aseptic tank, while 78% used improvedpit latrines and the remaining 10% depended on hanging latrines.[135]
Thesewage system is inadequate, with 70 per cent of the two million cubic metres ofsewage produced daily being discharged into rivers, according to wastewater management experts.[233] Due to improper maintenance and the age of the system, the majority of the sewerage network is out of operation.[234][235] Most buildings handle their own sewage by constructingsoak pits orseptic tanks, often connected tostorm drains. Consequently, 80 per cent offaecal sludge ends up in rivers, according to experts.[233]
Dhaka is served by twosewage treatment plants.[236] The Pagla Sewerage Treatment Plant (PSTP) inNarayanganj District has a capacity of 120megalitres per day[119] but can only utilise one-third of its capacity,[233] handling just 10 per cent of the city's waste.[235] The Dasherkandi Sewage Treatment Plant, opened in 2023, is South Asia's largest, with a capacity to treat 500 megalitres, or 20–25% of the city's 2,000 megalitres of sewage generated daily.[237] However, it is also hampered by a lack of sewage connections.[235]
TheBangladesh Government and the Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority (DWASA) are implementing an ambitious plan, calledDhaka Sewerage Master Plan, to treat most of the residential and industrial wastewater through the construction of several sewage treatment plants. The Bangladesh Government is planning to install over 12 large new sewage treatment plants over the next 20 years.[124]
Dhaka is a major centre forBengali literature. It has been the hub ofBengali Muslim literature for more than a century. Its heritage also includes historicUrdu andPersian literary traditions.Dark Diamond byShazia Omar in set in Mughal-era Dhaka during the reign ofShaista Khan, the Mughal viceroy and uncle of Emperor Aurangzeb.[238]The Soldier in the Attic byAkhteruzzaman Elias is considered to be one of the best depictions of life inOld Dhaka and is set during Bengali uprisings in 1969.A Golden Age byTahmima Anam is also set in Dhaka during the Bangladeshi War of Independence and includes references to theDhaka Club, theDhaka University and theDhanmondi area.
Indigenoussari fabrics, includingJamdani, at a store in Dhaka
For centuries, the region around Dhaka has been the centre of production for fine cotton textiles.Muslin was abundantly produced in the region. The weavers of Dhaka were patronized by the rulers of Bengal and Delhi. They supplied textiles to the Mughal imperial court. The city of Dhaka became one of the most important centres of the cotton textile trade in the 17th century. It was literally the capital of theMuslin trade in Bengal. Merchants from around the world came to Dhaka to buy its much sought after cotton fabrics.UNESCO has recognizedJamdani muslin as anintangible cultural heritage.[239] According to UNESCO, "Jamdani is a vividly patterned, sheer cotton fabric, traditionally woven on a handloom by craftspeople and apprentices around Dhaka".[240] UNESCO believes "the Jamdani sari is a symbol of identity, dignity and self-recognition and provides wearers with a sense of cultural identity and social cohesion. The weavers develop an occupational identity and take great pride in their heritage; they enjoy social recognition and are highly respected for their skills".[240]
Annual celebrations forLanguage Martyrs' Day (21 February),Independence Day (26 March), andVictory Day (16 December) are prominently celebrated across the city. Dhaka's people congregate at theShaheed Minar and theJatiyo Smriti Soudho to remember the national heroes of the liberation war. These occasions are observed with public ceremonies and rallies on public grounds. Many schools and colleges organize fairs, festivals, and concerts in which citizens from all levels of society participate.[241]Pohela Baishakh, the Bengali New Year, falls annually on 14 April and is popularly celebrated across the city.[241] Large crowds of people gather on the streets ofShahbag,Ramna Park and the campus of the University of Dhaka for celebrations.Pahela Falgun, the first day of spring of the monthFalgun in theBengali calendar, is also festively celebrated in the city.[242] This day is marked with colourful celebration and traditionally, women wear yellow saris to celebrate this day. This celebration is also known asBasanta Utsab (Spring Festival).Nabanna is a harvest celebration, usually celebrated with food and dance, and music on the 1st day of the month of Agrahayan of the Bengali year. Birthdays of Rabindranath Tagore and Kazi Nazrul Islam are observed respectively asRabindra Jayanti andNazrul Jayanti. TheEkushey Book Fair, which is arranged each year byBangla Academy, takes place for the whole month of February. This event is dedicated to the martyrs who died on 21 February 1952 in a demonstration calling for the establishment of Bengali as one of the state languages of formerEast Pakistan.Shakrain Festival is an annual celebration observed with the flying of kites.[243] It is usually observed in the old part of the city at the end of Poush, the ninth month of the Bengali calendar (14 or 15 January in theGregorian calendar).
The popularity of music groups and rock bands such asWarfaze,Shironamhin,Artcell and other solo artists such as Aryan Chowdhary,Ayub Bachchu, andShafin Ahmed is growing day by day among the newer generations of Dhaka.[244] Despite this, traditionalfolk music remains widely popular.[245] The works of the national poetKazi Nazrul Islam, national anthem writerRabindranath Tagore and mystic saint songwriterLalon have a widespread following across Dhaka.[246] Bailey Road is known asnatak para (drama neighbourhood) for its two theatre halls.[247]
Rickshaws have become a symbol of the city. Rickshaws are colourfully painted with floral patterns and depictions of birds, animals, movie stars, religious text, historical events and national heroes. According toUNESCO, "Rickshaws and rickshaw painting are viewed as a key part of the city's cultural tradition and a dynamic form of urban folk art".[39]
Dhaka has a renowned style of mutton (goat meat) and potatobiryani, known as theKacchi Biryani.Bakarkhani is a snake item mostly eaten inold Dhaka
Historically, Dhaka has been the culinary capital of Bengal for Muslim cuisine, particularlyMughlai cuisine. Restaurants in the city serve several types ofbiryani, including Kacchi Biryani (goat meat),Tehari (beef), Murag Pulao (chicken), and Ilish Pulao (ilish fish).Khichuri rice is a popularcomfort food. A distinct variant of Bengali-Mughlai cuisine evolved in the city. Like other Mughal cities, a special tradition exists to eatnihari beef stew during breakfast. In Dhaka, the nihari stew can be eaten with Bengali breads.[248] Chefs from Dhaka, the former Mughal provincial capital, served in the kitchens of the Nawabs of Dhaka and Murshidabad. They invented theKacchi Biryani, which is a variant ofbiryani with mutton steaks and potatoes. One of the longest surviving outlets serving authenticKacchi Biryani is Fakhruddin's.[249]Kacchi Biryani is highly popular in Bangladeshi cuisine, with food critic and formerMasterChef Australia judgeMatt Preston praising its use of potatoes.[250]Borhani is served as a drink alongside biryani. The Nawabi cuisine of Dhaka was notable for itspatishapta dessert and theKubalipulao. Thekorma recipe of the Nawab family was included byMadhur Jaffrey in her cookbook "Madhur Jaffrey's Ultimate Curry Bible".[251]Bakarkhani breads from Dhaka were served in the courts of Mughal rulers.[252]
Since 1939,Haji biryani has been a leading biryani restaurant in the city. Dhaka also has a style ofMurag Pulao (chicken biryani) which usesturmeric andmalai (cream of milk) together.[253] Localkebabs are widely eaten when dining out. Theseekh kebab andchicken tikka are the most popular dishes in kebab restaurants, which are eaten with eithernaan orparatha.Liver is often eaten with breads, as a stuffing, or as a curry.Star Kabab is the most popular kebab chain in the city, alongside other chains and gourmet restaurants.[254] Different kinds ofbhurta, which refers to mashed vegetables, are widely eaten. Various types of Bengali fish curry are found in the city. Along withSouth Asian cuisine, a large variety of Western andChinese cuisine is served at numerous restaurants and food courts.[151] Upmarket areas include many Thai, Japanese and Korean restaurants.[255]Italian food is also very popular in Dhaka, especially in upmarket areas.[256]
DuringRamadan,Chowkbazaar becomes a busy marketplace foriftar items. Thejilapi of Dhaka are much thicker than counterparts in India and Pakistan.[257] TheShahi jilapi (king's jilapi) is one of the thickest jilapi produced. Thephuchka andjhalmuri are popular street food. Dhaka hosts an array of Bengali dessert chains that sell a wide variety ofsweets.Samosas andshingaras are also widely eaten traditional snacks. In recent years, the number of Bangladeshi-ownedburger outlets has increased across the city. Notable bakeries include thePrince of Wales bakery in Old Dhaka and theCooper's chain.
The architectural history of Dhaka can be subdivided into the Mughal, British, and modern periods. As a result, Dhaka has landmarks ofMughal architecture,Indo-Saracenic architecture, andmodernist architecture. The oldest brick structure in the city is theBinat Bibi Mosque, which was built in 1454 in theNarinda area of Dhaka during the reign of the SultanNasiruddin Mahmud Shah (r. 1435 – 1459) of the Bengal Sultanate.[258][259] Old Dhaka is home to over 2000 buildings built between the 16th and 19th centuries, which form an integral part of Dhaka's cultural heritage. Modern Dhaka is often criticized as a concrete jungle.[260]
In the old part of the city, the fading grandeur of the Mughal era is evident in the crumbling, neglected caravanserai likeBara Katra andChoto Katra. Some structures like theNimtali arch have been restored. The old city features narrow alleyways with high-walled lanes and houses with indoor courtyards.[74] The early 20th century government quarter inRamna includes stately colonial buildings set amidst gardens and parks.[74] Among colonial buildings, theCurzon Hall stands out for "synthesizing imperial grandiosity with sporadic Mughal motifs".[261]
Amongst modernist buildings, theGrameenphone headquarters is described as "a paradigm setter for corporate Bangladesh".[261] The Museum of Independence and its attached national monument were inspired by the "land-water mysticism of deltaic Bengal" and the "evocative expansiveness of a Roman forum or the geographical assemblage of an Egyptianmastaba sanctuary".[261] Dhaka's Art Institute, designed byMuzharul Islam, was the pioneering building of Bengali regional modernism.[261] The vast expanse of the national parliament complex was designed byLouis Kahn. It is celebrated as Dhaka's pre-eminent civic space.[262] The national parliament complex comprises 200 acres (800,000 m2) in the heart of the city.[263] TheKamalapur railway station was designed by American architectRobert Boughey.[211] In the last few decades, Bangladesh's new wave of cultural architecture has been influenced by Bengali aesthetics and the environment.[264]City Centre Bangladesh is currently the tallest building in the city.
In 1849, the Katra Press became the first printing press in the city. The name alludes to thekatra, the Bengali word for caravanserai. In 1856,Dacca News became the first English-language newspaper in the city. The Dacca News Press was the first commercial printing press in the city. Books published in Dhaka stirred discourse in the social and literary circles of Bengal. The Bengal Library Catalogue records the expansion of the publishing industry during the 1860s. Between 1877 and 1895, there were 45 printing presses in Dhaka. Between 1863 and 1900, more than a hundred Islamicputhi were published in Dhaka. Bookshops sprang up inChowkbazaar, Islampur, Mughaltuli, and Patuatuli. Albert Library was a den for left-wing activists.[265] After partition, the number of publishing houses in Dhaka rose from 27 in 1947 to 88 in 1966.[265] Prominent bookshops included Wheeler's Bookstall and Presidency Library. Banglabazaar has since become the hub of the book trade.[265] Bookworm is a famous local book shop that has been located adjacent to the Prime Minister's Office for three decades until being ordered to relocate in 2022;[266][267][268] it is now located in Justice Shahabuddin Ahmed Park.[269]
Curzon Hall is the home of the Faculty of Science, Dhaka University
Dhaka has the largest number of schools, colleges and universities of any Bangladeshi city. The education system is divided into five levels: primary (from grades 1 to 5), junior (from grades 6 to 8), secondary (from grades 9 to 10), higher secondary (from grades 11 to 12) and tertiary.[272] The five years of primary education concludes with a Primary School Completion (PSC) Examination, the three years of junior education concludes withJunior School Certificate (JSC) Examination. Next, two years of secondary education concludes with aSecondary School Certificate (SSC) Examination. Students who pass this examination proceed to two years of higher secondary or intermediate training, which culminate in aHigher Secondary School Certificate (HSC) Examination.[272] Education is mainly offered in Bengali. However, English is also widely taught and used. Many Muslim families send their children to attend part-time courses or even to pursue full-time religious education alongside other subjects, which is imparted in Bengali and Arabic in schools, colleges andmadrasas.[272]
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