Theorthography of this script reflects the pronunciation of the language.[14] Unlike the Latin alphabet, the script has no concept ofletter case, meaning the script is aunicameral alphabet.[15] It is written from left to right, has a strong preference for symmetrical, rounded shapes within squared outlines, and is recognisable by a horizontal line, known as aशिरोरेखाśirorekhā, that runs along the top of full letters.[8] In a cursory look, the Devanāgarī script appears different from otherIndic scripts, such asBengali-Assamese orGurmukhi, but a closer examination reveals they are very similar, except for angles and structural emphasis.[8]
Devanāgarī is formed by the addition of the worddeva (देव) to the wordnāgarī (नागरी).Nāgarī is an adjective derived fromnagara (नगर), a Sanskrit word meaning "town" or "city", and literally means "urban" or "urbane".[21] The wordNāgarī (implicitly modifyinglipi, "script") was used on its own to refer to a North Indian script, or perhaps a number of such scripts, as Al-Biruni attests in the 11th century; the formDevanāgarī is attested later, at least by the 18th century.[22] The name of theNandināgarī script is also formed by adding a prefix to the generic script namenāgarī. The precise origin and significance of the prefixdeva remains unclear.
Some of the earliest epigraphic evidence attesting to the developingSanskritNāgarī script in ancient India is from the 1st to 4th century CE inscriptions discovered inGujarat.[9] Variants of script callednāgarī, recognisably close to Devanāgarī, are first attested from the 1st century CERudradaman inscriptions in Sanskrit, while the modern standardised form of Devanāgarī was in use by about 1000 CE.[10][25] Medieval inscriptions suggest widespread diffusion of Nāgarī-related scripts, withbiscripts presenting local script along with the adoption of Nāgarī scripts. For example, the mid 8th-centuryPattadakal pillar inKarnataka has text in bothSiddha Matrika script, and an earlyTelugu-Kannada script; while, theKangraJawalamukhi inscription inHimachal Pradesh is written in bothSharada and Devanāgarī scripts.[26]
The Nāgarī script was in regular use by the 7th century CE, and it was fully developed by about the end of first millennium.[7][10] The use of Sanskrit in Nāgarī script in medieval India is attested by numerous pillar and cave-temple inscriptions, including the 11th-centuryUdayagiri inscriptions inMadhya Pradesh,[27] and an inscribed brick found inUttar Pradesh, dated to be from 1217 CE, which is now held at theBritish Museum.[28] The script's prototypes and related versions have been discovered with ancient relics outside India, in places such asSri Lanka,Myanmar andIndonesia. In East Asia, theSiddhaṃ matrika script (considered as the closest precursor to Nāgarī) was in use byBuddhists.[16][29] Nāgarī has been theprimus inter pares of the Indic scripts.[16] It has long been used traditionally by religiously educated people inSouth Asia to record and transmit information, existing throughout the land in parallel with a wide variety of local scripts (such asMoḍī,Kaithi, andMahajani) used for administration, commerce, and other daily uses.
Sharada remained in parallel use inKashmir. An early version of Devanāgarī is visible in theKutila inscription of Bareilly dated toVS 1049 (992 CE), which demonstrates the emergence of the horizontal bar to group letters belonging to a word.[30] One of the oldest surviving Sanskrit texts from the early post-Maurya period consists of 1,413 Nāgarī pages of a commentary byPatanjali, with a composition date of about 150 BCE, the surviving copy transcribed about 14th century CE.[31]
InSinja Valley, mid-westernNepal where the Nepali language originates from, the earliest examples of the Devanagari script from the 13th century were found on the cliffs and in nearby Dullu.[32]
Examples of Devanāgarī manuscripts created between the 18th and 19th centuries
In the 7th century, under the rule ofSongtsen Gampo of theTibetan Empire,Thonmi Sambhota was sent to Nepal to open marriage negotiations with aNepali princess and to find a writing system suitable for theTibetan language. He then invented theTibetan script based on the Nāgarī used in Kashmir. He added 6 new characters for sounds that did not exist in Sanskrit.[33]
Other scripts closely related to Nāgarī (such asSiddhaṃ) were introduced throughout East and Southeast Asia from the 7th to the 10th centuries CE: notably in Indonesia, Vietnam, and Japan.[34][35]
Most of the Southeast Asian scripts have roots in Dravidian scripts, but a few found in south-central regions of Java and isolated parts of southeast Asia resemble Devanāgarī or its prototypes. TheKawi script in particular is similar to the Devanāgarī in many respects, though the morphology of the script has local changes. The earliest inscriptions in the Devanāgarī-like scripts are from around the 10th century CE, with many more between the 11th and 14th centuries.[36][37]
Some of the old-Devanāgarī inscriptions are found in Hindu temples of Java, such as thePrambanan temple.[38] The Ligor and the Kalasan inscriptions of central Java, dated to the 8th century, are also in the Nāgarī script of north India. According to the epigraphist and Asian Studies scholar Lawrence Briggs, these may be related to the 9th century copper plate inscription of Devapaladeva (Bengal) which is also in early Devanāgarī script.[39] The term kawi in Kawi script is a loan word fromkāvya (poetry). According to anthropologists and Asian studies scholarsJohn Norman Miksic and Goh Geok Yian, the 8th century version of early Nāgarī or Devanāgarī script was adopted in Java,Bali, and Khmer around the 8th–9th centuries, as evidenced by the many contemporaneous inscriptions of this period.[40]
Theletter order of Devanāgarī, like nearly all Brāhmic scripts, is based onphonetic principles that consider both themanner andplace of articulation of the consonants and vowels they represent. This arrangement is usually referred to as thevarṇamālā ("garland of letters").[42] The format of Devanāgarī for Sanskrit serves as the prototype for its application, with minor variations or additions, to other languages.[43]
Arranged with the vowels are two consonantaldiacritics, the finalnasalanusvāraंṃ and the finalfricativevisargaःḥ (calledअंaṃ andअःaḥ).Masica (1991:146) notes of theanusvāra in Sanskrit that "there is some controversy as to whether it represents a homorganicnasal stop..., anasalised vowel, a nasalisedsemivowel, or all these according to context". Thevisarga represents post-vocalicvoiceless glottal fricative[h], in Sanskrit anallophone ofs, or less commonlyr, usually in word-final position. Some traditions of recitation append an echo of thevowel after the breath:[45]इः[ihi].Masica (1991:146) considers thevisarga along with lettersङṅa andञña for the "largely predictable"velar andpalatal nasals to be examples of "phonetic overkill in the system".
Theavagraha (ऽअऽ) (usuallytransliterated with anapostrophe) is a Sanskritpunctuation mark for theelision of avowel insandhi:एकोऽयम्eko'yam ( ←एकस्ekas +अयम्ayam) ("this one"). An originallong vowel lost to coalescence is sometimes marked with a doubleavagraha:सदाऽऽत्माsadā'tmā ( ←सदाsadā +आत्माātmā) "always, the self".[50] In Hindi,Snell (2000:77) states that its "main function is to show that a vowel is sustained in a cry or a shout":आईऽऽऽ!āīīī!. In Madhyadeshi languages like Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Maithili, etc. which have "quite a number of verbal forms that end in that inherent vowel",[51] theavagraha is used to mark thenon-elision of word-final inherenta, which otherwise is a modern orthographic convention:बइठऽbaiṭha "sit" versusबइठbaiṭh
The syllabic consonantsॠṝ,ऌḷ, andॡḹ are specific to Sanskrit and not included in thevarṇamālā of other languages. The sound represented byṛ has also been largely lost in the modern languages, and its pronunciation now ranges from[ɾɪ] (Hindi) to[ɾu] (Marathi).
ḹ is not an actualphoneme of Sanskrit, but rather a graphic convention included among the vowels in order to maintain the symmetry of short–long pairs of letters.[43]
There are non-regular formations ofरुru,रूrū, andहृhṛ.
There are two more vowels inMarathi,ॲ andऑ, that respectively represent [æ], similar to theRP English pronunciation of⟨a⟩ inact, and [ɒ], similar to the RP pronunciation of⟨o⟩ incot. These vowels are sometimes used in Hindi too, as inडॉलरdôlar ("dollar").[52] IAST transliteration is not defined. InISO 15919, the transliteration isê andô, respectively.
Beyond the Sanskritic set, new shapes have rarely been formulated.Masica (1991:146) offers the following, "In any case, according to some, all possible sounds had already been described and provided for in this system, as Sanskrit was the original and perfect language. Hence it was difficult to provide for or even to conceiveother sounds, unknown to thephoneticians of Sanskrit". Where foreign borrowings and internal developments did inevitably accrue and arise in New Indo-Aryan languages, they have been ignored in writing, or dealt through means such asdiacritics andligatures (ignored in recitation).
The table below shows consonants with common vowel diacritics and theirISO 15919 transliteration. Vowels in their independent form on the top and in their corresponding dependent form (vowel sign) combined with the consonant 'k' on the bottom. 'ka' is without any added vowel sign, where the vowel 'a' isinherent.
a
ā
i
ī
u
ū
e
ê
ē
ai
o
ô
ō
au
r̥
r̥̄
l̥
l̥̄
ṁ
ḥ
m̐
अ
आ
इ
ई
उ
ऊ
ऎ
ॲ
ए
ऐ
ऒ
ऑ
ओ
औ
ऋ
ॠ
ऌ
ॡ
अं
अः
अँ
ा
ि
ी
ु
ू
ॆ
ॅ
े
ै
ॊ
ॉ
ो
ौ
ृ
ॄ
ॢ
ॣ
ं
ः
्
ँ
ka
kā
ki
kī
ku
kū
ke
kê
kē
kai
ko
kô
kō
kau
kr̥
kr̥̄
kl̥
kl̥̄
kaṁ
kaḥ
k
kam̐
क
का
कि
की
कु
कू
कॆ
कॅ
के
कै
कॊ
कॉ
को
कौ
कृ
कॄ
कॢ
कॣ
कं
कः
क्
कँ
A vowel combines with a consonant in their diacritic form. For example, the vowelआ (ā) combines with the consonantक् (k) to form the syllabic letterका (kā), withhalant (cancel sign) removed and added vowel sign which is indicated bydiacritics. The vowelअ (a) combines with the consonantक् (k) to formक (ka) with halant removed. But the diacritic series ofक,ख,ग,घ (ka, kha, ga, gha, respectively) is without any added vowel sign, as the vowelअ (a) isinherent.
TheJñānēśvarī is a commentary on theBhagavad Gita, dated to 1290 CE. It is in written inMarathi using the Devanāgarī script.
The combinations of allSanskrit consonants and vowels, each in alphabetical order, are laid out in thebārākhaḍī (बाराखडी) orbārahkhaṛī (बारहखड़ी) table. In the followingbarakhadi table, theIAST transliteration of each combination will appear on mouseover:
A mid-10th century Sanskrit land grant for a college, written in Devanāgarī, and discovered on a stone buried in north Karnataka. Parts of the inscription are written inCanarese script.[58]
The following letter variants are also in use, particularly in older texts and in specific regions:[59]
Picture with conjuncts fromAn Elementary Grammar of the Sanscrit Language, page 25,Monier Monier-Williams (1846).
As mentioned, successive consonants lacking a vowel in between them may physically join as aconjunct consonant orligature. When Devanāgarī is used for writing languages other than Sanskrit, conjuncts are used mostly with Sanskrit words and loan words. Native words typically use the basic consonant and native speakers know to suppress the vowel when it is conventional to do so. For example, the native Hindi wordkarnā is writtenकरना (ka-ra-nā).[60] The government of these clusters ranges from widely to narrowly applicable rules, with special exceptions within. While standardised for the most part, there are certain variations in clustering, of which theUnicode used on this page is just one scheme. The following are a number of rules:
Few examples ofश consonant clusters.
24 out of the 36 consonants contain a vertical right stroke (यya,नna,गga etc.). As first or middle fragments/members of a cluster (when letters are to be written as half pronounced), they lose that stroke. e.g.त् +व =त्वtva,ण् +ढ =ण्ढṇḍha,स् +थ =स्थstha. In Unicode, as in Hindi, these consonants without their vertical stems are called "half forms".[61]शśa appears as a different, simple ribbon-shaped fragment precedingवva,नna,चca,लla, andरra, causing these second members to be shifted down and reduced in size. Thusश्वśva,श्नśna,श्चśca,श्लśla,श्रśra, andशृśṛi.
रra as a first member takes the form of a curved upward dash above the final character or itsā- diacritic. e.g.र्वrva,र्वाrvā,र्स्पrspa,र्स्पाrspā. In Marathi and Nepali,रra as a first member of a conjunct also takes on an eyelash form when in front of glides and semivowels. e.g.र्यrya,र्वrva. As a final member withटṭa,ठṭha,डḍa,ढḍha,ड़ṛa,छcha, it is two lines together below the character pointed downwards. Thusट्रṭra,ठ्रṭhra,ड्रḍra,ढ्रḍhra,ड़्रṛra,छ्रchra. Elsewhere as a final member it is a diagonal stroke extending leftwards and down. e.g.क्र ग्र भ्र ब्र.तta is shifted up to make the conjunctत्रtra.
As first members, remaining characters lacking vertical strokes such asदda andहha may have their second member, reduced in size and lacking its horizontal stroke, placed underneath.कka,छcha, andफpha shorten their right hooks and join them directly to the following member.
The conjuncts forkṣa andjña are not clearly derived from the letters making up their components. The conjunct forkṣa isक्ष (क् +ष) and forjña it isज्ञ (ज् +ञ).
Thepitch accent ofVedic Sanskrit is written with various symbols depending onshakha. In theRigveda,anudātta is written with a bar below the line (◌॒),svarita with a stroke above the line (◌॑) whileudātta is unmarked.
The end of a sentence or half-verse may be marked with the "।" symbol (called adaṇḍa, meaning "bar", or called apūrṇa virām, meaning "full stop/pause"). The end of a full verse may be marked with a double-daṇḍa, a "॥" symbol. A comma (called analpa virām, meaning "short stop/pause") is used to denote a natural pause in speech.[62][63] Punctuation marks ofWestern origin, such as thecolon,semicolon,exclamation mark,dash, andquestion mark have been in use in Devanāgarī script since at least the 1900s,[citation needed] matching their use in European languages.[64]
A variety of Unicode fonts are in use for Devanāgarī. These include Akshar,[65] Annapurna,[66]Arial,[67] CDAC-Gist Surekh,[68] CDAC-Gist Yogesh,[69] Chandas,[70] Gargi,[71] Gurumaa,[72] Jaipur,[73] Jana,[74] Kalimati,[75] Kanjirowa,[76] Lohit Devanagari, Mangal,[77] Kokila,[78] ,Preeti,[79] Raghu,[80] Sanskrit2003,[81] Santipur OT,[82] Siddhanta, and Thyaka.[83]
The form of Devanāgarī fonts vary with function. According to Harvard College for Sanskrit studies:[82]
Uttara [companion toChandas] is the best in terms of ligatures but, because it is designed for Vedic as well, requires so much vertical space that it is not well suited for the "user interface font" (though an excellent choice for the "original field" font). Santipur OT is a beautiful font reflecting a very early [medieval era] typesetting style for Devanagari. Sanskrit 2003[84] is a good all-around font and has more ligatures than most fonts, though students will probably find the spacing of the CDAC-Gist Surekh[68] font makes for quicker comprehension and reading.
The Google Fonts project has a number of Unicode fonts for Devanāgarī in a variety of typefaces in serif, sans-serif, display and handwriting categories.
Indic scripts share common features, and along with Devanāgarī, all major Indic scripts have been historically used to preserve Vedic and post-Vedic Sanskrit texts.
A standard transliteration convention was codified in the ISO 15919 standard of 2001. It uses diacritics to map the much larger set of Brāhmic graphemes to the Latin script. The Devanāgarī-specific portion is nearly identical to the academic standard for Sanskrit,IAST.[89]
TheInternational Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is the academic standard for the romanisation of Sanskrit. IAST is the de facto standard used in printed publications, like books, magazines, and electronic texts with Unicode fonts. It is based on a standard established by theCongress of Orientalists atAthens in 1912. The ISO 15919 standard of 2001 codified the transliteration convention to include an expanded standard for sister scripts of Devanāgarī.[89]
Compared to IAST,Harvard-Kyoto looks much simpler. It does not contain all the diacritic marks that IAST contains. It was designed to simplify the task of putting large amount of Sanskrit textual material into machine readable form, and the inventors stated that it reduces the effort needed in transliteration of Sanskrit texts on the keyboard.[90] This makes typing in Harvard-Kyoto much easier than IAST. Harvard-Kyoto usescapital letters that can be difficult to read in the middle of words.
ITRANS is a lossless transliteration scheme of Devanāgarī intoASCII that is widely used onUsenet. It is an extension of theHarvard-Kyoto scheme. In ITRANS, the worddevanāgarī is written "devanaagarii" or "devanAgarI". ITRANS is associated with an application of the same name that enables typesetting inIndic scripts. The user inputs in Roman letters and the ITRANS pre-processor translates the Roman letters into Devanāgarī (or other Indic languages). The latest version ofITRANS is version 5.30 released in July 2001. It is similar to Velthuis system and was created by Avinash Chopde to help print various Indic scripts with personal computers.[90]
The disadvantage of the aboveASCII schemes is case-sensitivity, implying that transliterated names may not be capitalised. This difficulty is avoided with the system developed in 1996 by Frans Velthuis forTeX, loosely based on IAST, in which case is irrelevant.
ALA-LC[91] romanisation is a transliteration scheme approved by the Library of Congress and the American Library Association, and widely used in North American libraries. Transliteration tables are based on languages, so there is a table for Hindi,[92] one for Sanskrit and Prakrit,[93] etc.
WX is a Roman transliteration scheme for Indian languages, widely used among thenatural language processing community in India. It originated atIIT Kanpur for computational processing of Indian languages. The salient features of this transliteration scheme are as follows.
Every consonant and every vowel has a single mapping into Roman. Hence it is aprefix code, advantageous from computation point of view.
Lower-case letters are used for unaspirated consonants and short vowels, while capital letters are used for aspirated consonants and long vowels. While the retroflex stops are mapped to 't, T, d, D, N', the dentals are mapped to 'w, W, x, X, n'. Hence the name 'WX', a reminder of this idiosyncratic mapping.
ISCII is an 8-bit encoding. The lower 128 codepoints are plainASCII, the upper 128 codepoints are ISCII-specific.
It has been designed for representing not only Devanāgarī but also various otherIndic scripts as well as a Latin-based script with diacritic marks used for transliteration of the Indic scripts.
ISCII has largely been superseded by Unicode, which has, however, attempted to preserve the ISCII layout for its Indic language blocks.
The Unicode Standard defines four blocks for Devanāgarī: Devanagari (U+0900–U+097F), Devanagari Extended (U+A8E0–U+A8FF), Devanagari Extended-A (U+11B00–11B5F), and Vedic Extensions (U+1CD0–U+1CFF).
InScript is the standardkeyboard layout for Devanāgarī as standardized by the Government of India. It is inbuilt in all modern majoroperating systems.Microsoft Windows supports the InScript layout, which can be used to input unicode Devanāgarī characters. InScript is also available in some touchscreen mobile phones.
This layout was used on manual typewriters when computers were not available or were uncommon. For backward compatibility some typing tools like Indic IME still provide this layout.
Devanāgari Phonetic Keyboard LayoutOne can use ULS "लिप्यंतरण" (Transliteration) or "इनस्क्रिप्ट" (Inscript) typing options to search or edit Devanagari-script articles as shown in this video clip example. CC instructions are available for British English.
Such tools work on phonetic transliteration. The user writes in the Latin alphabet and theIME automatically converts it into Devanāgarī. Some popular phonetic typing tools are Akruti,Baraha IME andGoogle IME.
TheMac OS X operating system includes two differentkeyboard layouts for Devanāgarī: one resembles the INSCRIPT/KDE Linux, while the other is a phonetic layout called "Devanāgarī QWERTY".
Any one of the Unicode fonts input systems is fine for the Indic language Wikipedia and other wikiprojects, including Hindi, Bhojpuri, Marathi, and Nepali Wikipedia. While some people useInScript, the majority uses eitherGoogle phonetic transliteration or the input facilityUniversal Language Selector provided on Wikipedia. On Indic language wikiprojects, the phonetic facility provided initially was java-based, and was later supported by Narayam extension for phonetic input facility. Currently Indic language Wiki projects are supported byUniversal Language Selector (ULS), that offers both phonetic keyboard (Aksharantaran, Marathi:अक्षरांतरण, Hindi:लिप्यंतरण, बोलनागरी) andInScript keyboard (Marathi:मराठी लिपी).
TheUbuntu Linux operating system supports severalkeyboard layouts for Devanāgarī, including Harvard-Kyoto,WX notation, Bolanagari and phonetic. The 'remington' typing method in Ubuntu IBUS is similar to the Krutidev typing method, popular in Rajasthan. The 'itrans' method is useful for those who know English (and the English keyboard) well but are not familiar with typing in Devanāgarī.
^Daniels, P.T. (January 2008). "Writing systems of major and minor languages". In B. Kachru; Y. Kachru; S. Sridhar (eds.).Language in South Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 285–308.doi:10.1017/CBO9780511619069.017.ISBN9780521786539.
^Masica, Colin (1993).The Indo-Aryan languages. p. 143.
^abcKuiper, Kathleen (2010).The Culture of India. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 83.ISBN978-1615301492.
^abcSalomon, Richard (26 July 2007)."Writing systems of the Indo-Aryan languages". In Cardona, George; Jain, Danesh (eds.).The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. p. 72.ISBN978-1-135-79710-2. Retrieved1 July 2023.Each Brāhmī-derived script has a characteristic stylistic format or ductus, which tends to exaggerate their apparent differences and mask their underlying similarities. For example, Nagari has a strong preference for symmetrical shapes, especially squared outlines and right angles...
^ab"Rudradaman's inscription from 1st through 4th century CE found in Gujarat, India".Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency. Stanford University Archives. pp. 30–45, particularly Devanāgarī inscription on Jayadaman's coins (pp. 33–34).
^abcSalomon, Richard (2014).Indian Epigraphy. Oxford University Press. pp. 40–42.ISBN978-0195356663.
^abcCardona, George; Jain, Danesh (2003).The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. pp. 75–77.ISBN978-0415772945.
^"Hindi". Omniglot Encyclopedia of Writing Systems and Languages. Archived fromthe original on 28 May 2012.
^Snell, Rupert (1991).The Hindi classical tradition : a Braj Bhāṣā reader. London: School of Oriental and African studies.ISBN0-7286-0175-3.OCLC24794163.
^Cardona, George; Jain, Danesh (2003).The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. p. 75.ISBN978-0415772945.
^Grünendahl, Reinhold (2001).South Indian Scripts in Sanskrit Manuscripts and Prints. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. xxii,201–210.ISBN978-3447045049.
^Sagar, Krishna Chandra (1993).Foreign Influence on Ancient India. South Asia Books. p. 137.ISBN978-8172110284.
^Salomon, Richard (2014).Indian Epigraphy. Oxford University Press. p. 71.ISBN978-0195356663.
^Willis, Michael (2001). "Inscriptions from Udayagiri: locating domains of devotion, patronage and power in the eleventh century".South Asian Studies.17 (1):41–53.doi:10.1080/02666030.2001.9628591.S2CID161258027.
^Ardika, Wayan (2009). Hermann, Elfriede; et al. (eds.).Form, Macht, Differenz: Motive und Felder ethnologischen Forschens (in German). Universitätsverlag Göttingen. pp. 251–252.ISBN978-3940344809.Nagari script and Sanskrit language in the inscription at Blangjong suggests that Indian culture was already influencing Bali (Indonesia) by the 10th century CE.
^Witzel, Michael (2006). "17. Brahmanical Reactions to Foreign Influences and to Social and Religious Change". InOlivelle, Patrick (ed.).Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE. Oxford University Press. pp. 477–480 with footnote 60.doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195305326.003.0017.ISBN978-0195305326.; Original manuscript, dates in Saka Samvat, and uncertainties associated with it:Kielhorn, F., ed. (1880),Mahabhasya of Patanjali, Bombay, Government central Book depôt
^Quinter, David (2015).From Outcasts to Emperors: Shingon Ritsu and the Mañjuśrī Cult in Medieval Japan. Brill. pp. 63–65 with discussion onUṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra.ISBN978-9004293397.
^Salomon, Richard (2014).Indian Epigraphy. Oxford University Press. pp. 157–160.ISBN978-0195356663.
^Teselkin, Avenir S. (1972).Old Javanese (Kawi). Cornell University Press. pp. 9–14.Archived from the original on 26 January 2020. Retrieved28 October 2018.
^Briggs, Lawrence Palmer (1950). "The Origin of the Sailendra Dynasty: Present Status of the Question".Journal of the American Oriental Society.70 (2). JSTOR:79–81.doi:10.2307/595536.ISSN0003-0279.JSTOR595536.
^Pandey, Dipti; Mondal, Tapabrata; Agrawal, S. S.; Bangalore, Srinivas (2013). "Development and suitability of Indian languages speech database for building watson based ASR system".2013 International Conference Oriental COCOSDA held jointly with 2013 Conference on Asian Spoken Language Research and Evaluation (O-COCOSDA/CASLRE). p. 3.doi:10.1109/ICSDA.2013.6709861.ISBN978-1-4799-2378-6.S2CID26461938.Only in Hindi 10 Phonemes व /v/ क़ /q/ ञ /ɲ/ य /j/ ष /ʂ/ ख़ /x/ ग़ /ɣ/ ज़ /z/ झ़ /ʒ/ फ़ /f/
^Pandit, S.P. (1872)."Salotgi Inscription".The Indian Antiquary: A Journal of Oriental Research. pp. 205–211.The inscription of which a translation is given below, is engraved on a stone pillar about 4 feet 10 inches in height, 1 foot 2 inches thick, and 1 foot 9 inches broad. It is cut in Devanagari characters on three of its four sides, and...
^Bahri, Harder (2004).Hindi-Angrezi Shabdkosh. p. xiii.
Lambert, Hester Marjorie (1953),Introduction to the Devanagari Script: For Students of Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati and Bengali, London: Geoffrey Cumberlege (Oxford University Press).
Salomon, Richard (2003), "Writing Systems of the Indo-Aryan Languages", in Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh (eds.),The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge, pp. 67–103,ISBN978-0-415-77294-5.
Verma, Sheela (2003), "Magahi", in Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh (eds.),The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge, pp. 498–514,ISBN978-0-415-77294-5.
Thousands of manuscripts of ancient and medieval era Sanskrit texts in Devanāgarī have been discovered since the 19th century. Major catalogues and census include:
A preliminary list of the Sanskrit and Prakrit manuscripts, Vedas, Sastras, Sutras, Schools of Hindu Philosophies, Arts, Design, Music and other fields, Friedrich Otto Schrader (Compiler), (Devanagiri manuscripts are identified by Character codeDe.)
Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts, Part 4: Manuscripts of Hindu schools of Philosophy and Tantra, Harvard University Archives (mostly Devanāgarī)
Catalogue of the Sanskrit Manuscripts, Part 5: Manuscripts of Medicine, Astronomy and Mathematics, Architecture and Technical Science Literature, Julius Eggeling (Compiler), Harvard University Archives (mostly Devanāgarī)
Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency, p. 30, atGoogle Books, Rudradaman's inscription in Sanskrit Nāgarī script from 1st through 4th century CE (coins and epigraphy), found in Gujarat, India, pages 30–45
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