| Female servant of a god | |
 Devadasi named Gnyana ofTanjore, 19th century | |
| Formation | aroundGupta period[1] |
|---|---|
| Type | Temple priestess |
| Headquarters | no central authority |
Region served | Indian Subcontinent |
| Members | 44,000 to 250,000 (2006)[2] |
Ministry | Temple services (including rituals, music, dance) |
In India, adevadasi is a female artist who is dedicated to the worship and service of a deity or a temple for the rest of her life.[3][4] The dedication takes place in a ceremony that is somewhat similar to a marriage ceremony. In addition to taking care of the temple and performing rituals, these women also learn and practice classical Indian dances such asBharatanatyam,Mohiniyattam,Kuchipudi, andOdissi. Their status as dancers, musicians, and consorts was an essential part of temple worship.
Between the sixth and thirteenth centuries, Devadasis had a high rank and dignity in society and were exceptionally affluent as they were seen as the protectors of the arts. During this period, royal patrons provided them with gifts of land, property, and jewellery.[1] After becoming Devadasis, the women would spend their time learning religious rites, rituals and dances. Devadasis were expected to live a life of celibacy.[5]
During the period ofBritish rule in the Indian subcontinent, kings who were the patrons of temples lost their power, thus the temple artist communities also lost their significance.[5] As a result, Devadasis were left without their traditional means of support and patronage and were now commonly associated withprostitution.[6][7][8] The practice of Devadasi was banned duringBritish rule, starting with theBombay Devadasi Protection Act in 1934. The colonial view of Devadasi practices remains debated as the British colonial government were unable to distinguish the Devadasis from non-religious street dancers.[9][10][11][12][13][14]
The Devadasi system is still in existence in rudimentary form, but under pressure from social activism at different times, some state governments have outlawed it, such asAndhra Pradesh with its 1988 Devdasis (Prohibition of Dedication) Act andMadras with its 1947 Devdasis Act.[15]
The practice became significant when one of the great queens of theSomavamshi dynasty decided that in order to honour the gods, certain women who were trained in classical dancing, should be married to the deities.[16] The inception of the practice was one that was imbued with great respect as the women who were chosen to becomedevadasi or “Devidasi”were subject to two great honors: first, because they were literally married to the deity, they were to be treated as if they were thegoddess Lakshmi herself, and second, the women were honored because they were considered to be "those great women who (could) control natural human impulses, their five senses and [could] submit themselves completely to God."[17] As they were married to an immortal, the women were considered to be auspicious. Their main duties, in addition to committing to a life without marriage (to a mortal, in the common, popular sense), were to take care of a temple and learn classical Indian dances, usually theBharatanatyam, which they would perform at temple rituals. Patrons were considered to have higher status for their ability to financially sponsor Devadasis.[18][19]
According to temple worship rules, orAgamas, dance and music are the necessary aspects of dailypuja for temple deities. Devadasis were known by various local terms such asBasavi inKarnataka,Matangi inMaharashtra, andKalavantin inGoa and Damaon.[20] Devadasis were also known asJogini,Venkatasani,Nailis,Muralis andTheradiyan. Devadasi is sometimes referred to as acaste (varna); however some question the accuracy of this usage. "According to the devadasi themselves there exists a devdasi 'way of life' or 'professional ethic' (vritti, murai) but not a devadasi jāti (sub-caste). Later, the office of devdasi became hereditary but it did not confer the right to work without adequate qualification" (Amrit Srinivasan, 1985). In Europe the termbayadere (fromFrench:bayadère, fromPortuguese:balhadeira, literallydancer) was occasionally used.[21][22]
The definite origin of the Devadasi or Devidasi tradition is murky due to its early inception.[23] Many scholars have noted that the tradition has no basis in scriptures.A. S. Altekar states that, "the custom of association of dancing girls with temples is unknown toJataka literature. It is not mentioned by Greek writers, and theArthashastra, which describes in detail the life ofGanika, is silent about it."[1]
The tradition of female artists in temples is said to have developed during the 3rd century CE. A reference to such dancers is found in theMeghadūta ofKālidāsa, a classical poet andSanskrit writer of theGupta Empire.[1] An example of reference to a Devadasi in the 3rd century CE inSouth India isMadhavi found in theSilappadikaram.[24][25] Other sources include the works of authors such asXuanzang, a Chinese traveller, andKalhana, aKashmiri historian. An inscription dated to the 11th century suggests that there were 400Devadasis attached to theThanjavur temple in South India. Similarly, there were 500Devadasis at theSomeshvara shrine ofGujarat.[1] Between the 6th and 13th centuries,Devadasis had a high rank and dignity in society and were exceptionally affluent as they were seen as the protectors of the arts. During this period royal patrons provided them with gifts of land, property, and jewellery.[1]
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TheChola empire supported the Devadasi system; in Tamil Devadasis were known asDevar Adigalar ("Deva" means "Divine" and "Adigalar" "Servants", i.e. "Servants of the Divine"). Both male and female Devadasas and Devadasis were dedicated to the service of Hindu temples and their deities. The Chola empire developed the tradition of music and dance employed during temple festivals.[27]
Inscriptions indicate that 400 dancers, along with theirgurus and orchestras, were maintained by the Brihadisvara temple,Thanjavur,[28] with munificent grants including the daily disbursement of oil, turmeric, betel leaves, and nuts.[29] Nattuvanars were the male accompanists of the Devadasis during their performances. The Nattuvanars conducted the orchestra while the Devadasi performed her service. Inscriptions indicate that Nattuvanars taught the Chola queen and princess Kundavai.[29]
As the Chola empire expanded in wealth and size, more temples were built throughout the country. Soon other empresses and emperors started imitating the Chola empire and adopted Devadasi systems of their own.[citation needed]
Portuguese travelerDomingo Paes who visitedVijayanagara Empire in 16th century describes the presence of Devadasis in the empire.[30]
"The women begin to dance, while some of them place themselves in the circular galleries that I have said were (erected) at their gate of entrance. Who can fitly describe to you the great riches these women carry on their persons? - collars of gold with so many diamonds and rubies and pearls, bracelets also on their arms and on their upper arms, girdles below, and of necessity anklets on the feet. The marvel should be otherwise, namely that women of such a profession should obtain such wealth; but there are women among them who have lands that have been given to them, and litters, and so many maid-servants that one cannot number all their things. There is a woman in this city who is said to have a hundred thousand pardaos and I believe this from what I have seen of them. These women live in the best streets that there are in the city; it is the same in all their cities, their streets have the best rows of houses. They are very much esteemed, and are classed amongst those honored ones who are the mistresses of the captains; any respectable man may go to their houses without any blame attaching thereto. These women (are allowed) even to enter the presence of the wives of the king, and they stay with them and eat betel with them, a thing which no other person may do, no matter what his rank may be."
A community of Karnataka living inAndhra Pradesh, theNatavalollu were are also known asNattuvaru,Bogam,Bhogam, andKalavanthulu.
It was customary in theKrishna district ofTenali for each family to give one girl to the Devadasi system. These dancers were known asDevadasis. As part of a social reform, a written agreement was made to formally end the practice.
Ādapāpas were female attendants to the ladies of the families ofZamindars. Ādapāpas were not allowed to marry. In some places such as the Krishna andGodāvari districts, Ādapāpas were known asKhasa orKhasavandlu.[31]
Natavalollu/Kalawants were a community that was distributed throughout the state ofAndhra Pradesh. They were also referred to asDevadasi,Bogamvallu,Ganikulu, andSani.Kalavantulu means one who is engaged in art.[32]Davesh Soneji writes that, "By the early twenty-first century, large numbers of women in the Kalavanthulu community had converted to Christianity, because this promised them a stable monthly income as members of the new rehabilitation programs of these missions."[33]
In the eastern state ofOdisha Devadasis were known colloquially asMaharis of theJagannath temple complex. The termDevadasi referred to the women who danced inside the temple. Devadasi, or mahari, means "those great women who can control natural human impulses, their five senses and can submit themselves completely to God (Vachaspati)". Mahari is a contraction ofMahan Nari, translating to, "the woman belonging to God".Chaitanya had defined Devadasis asSebayatas who served God through dance and music.Pankaj Charan Das, the oldest guru ofOdissi classical dance and who comes from a Mahari family, defines Mahari asMaha Ripu-Ari, one who conquers the six main ripus – enemies.[34]
Unlike other parts of India, the Odia Mahari Devadasis were never sexually liberal and were expected to remain celibate upon becoming Devadasis. However, there are records of Odia Mahari Devadasi having relationships and children. It is said that the daughters of the Maharis of the Jagannath temple took to other professions such as nursing in the mid-20th century due to stigma attached to their inherent profession, as dance was frowned up during the colonial era.
The 1956 Orissa Gazette lists nine Devadasis and eleven temple musicians. By 1980, only four Devadasis were left – Harapriya, Kokilaprabha, Parashmani, andShashimani. By 1998, only Shashimani and Parashmani were still alive. The daily ritualistic dance had stopped, although Shashimani and Parashmani served in a few of the yearly temple rituals such asNabakalebara,Nanda Utsava, andDuara Paka duringBahuda Jatra.[34] The last of the Devadasis, Shashimani, died on 19 March 2015, at the age of 92.[35]
In the southern Indian state of Karnataka the Devadasi system was practiced for over 10 centuries. Chief among them was theYellamma cult.[36]
There are many stories about the origin of the Yellamma cult. The most popular story indicates that Renuka was the daughter of aBrahmin, who married the sageJamadagni, and was the mother of five sons. She used to bring water from theMalaprabha river for the sage's worship and rituals. One day at the river she saw a group of youths engaged in water sports and forgot to return home in time for her husband's worship and rituals, which made Jamadagni question her chastity. He ordered their sons one by one to punish their mother, but four of them refused on one pretext or the other. The sage cursed them to becomeeunuchs and had Renuka beheaded by his fifth son,Parashurama. To everybody's astonishment, Renuka's head multiplied by tens and hundreds and moved to different regions. This miracle inspired her four eunuch sons as well as others to become her followers and worship her head.[37][full citation needed]
Reformists and abolitionists considered the Devadasi a social evil due to their way of life, which had very widely degenerated into a system of prostitution.[38][full citation needed] The first anti-Nautch and anti-dedication movement began in 1882, even though theBritish colonial authorities officially maintained most brothels in India.[39] The Irish missionaryAmy Carmichael was active in helping Devadasi women to escape their situation.
In later period[when?] the devadasis were equated with prostitutes and their children were again given away to temples. Stigma was attached to a particular caste of devadasis and they were seen as prostitutes. After a certain age they were left to fend for themselves.[40]
As the Devadasi were equated with prostitutes, they also became associated with the spread of thevenereal diseasesyphilis in India. During the British colonial period many British soldiers were exposed to venereal diseases in brothels, and Devadasis were misunderstood to be responsible. In an effort to control the spread of venereal disease the British Government mandated that all prostitutes register themselves. Devadasis were required to register, as they were thought to be prostitutes by the British Government.[41]
In addition to obligatory registration, the British Government also established institutions known as Lock Hospitals where women were brought in order to be treated for venereal diseases. However, many of the women admitted to these hospitals, including many Devadasi, were identified through the registry and then forcibly brought to the hospitals. A number of these women were confined in the hospitals permanently.[41]
Today,Sitavva Joddati of Karnataka helps former Devadasi find a foothold in mainstream society. In 1982 she was made a Devadasi at age seven. In 1997 she began the non-governmental organisation MASS (Mahila Abhivrudhi-Samrakshana Sansthe) in theBelagavi district ofGhataprabha to help women like her escape the Devadasi system and live a life of dignity. Between 1997 and 2017 MASS helped over 4,800 Devadasis reintegrate into mainstream society. In 2018 she received thePadmashri award at age 43.[42][43][44]
Rukmini Devi Arundale, atheosophist trained in ballet, sought to re-appropriate the Devadasi dance traditions in a context perceived respectably by Indian society which had by then adopted the western morales. She altered the dance repertoire to exclude pieces perceived as erotic in their description of a deity. She also systematized the dance in a way that incorporated the extension and use of space associated with dance traditions such as ballet. The product of this transformation was a new version ofBharatanatyam, which she taught professionally at theKalakshetra school she established in Madras. Bharatanatyam is commonly seen as a very ancient dance tradition associated with the Natyashastra. However, Bharatanatyam as it is performed and known today is actually a product of Arundale's recent endeavour to remove the Devadasi dance tradition from the perceived immoral context associated with the Devadasi community and bring it into the upper caste performance milieu.[45] She also adopted a lot of technical elements of ballet into the modified form of Bharatanatyam. To give the dance form a measure of respectE Krishna Iyer andRukmini Devi Arundale proposed a resolution at a 1932 meeting of the Madras Music Academy to renameSadirattam to "Bharatanatyam" or Indian dance.[46]
The first legal initiative to outlaw the Devadasi system dates back to the 1934Bombay Devadasi Protection Act. This act pertained to theBombay province as it existed in theBritish Raj. The Bombay Devadasi Protection Act made dedication of women illegal, whether consensual or not. In 1947, the year of Indian independence, theMadras Devadasi (Prevention of Dedication) Act outlawed dedication in the southernMadras Presidency. The Devadasi system was formally outlawed in all of India in 1988, although social and economic pressures on mostlyDalit families have ensured that the Devadasi system is still widely practiced illegally.[38][47]
From the late medieval period until 1910, the Pottukattu ortali-tying dedication ceremony, was a widely advertised community event requiring the full cooperation of the local religious authorities. It initiated a young girl into the Devadasi profession and was performed in the temple by a priest.The dedication was a symbolic "marriage" of the pubescent girl to the temple's deity.
In thesadanku or puberty ceremonies, the Devadasi initiate began her marriage with an emblem of the god borrowed from the temple as a stand-inbridegroom. From then onward, the Devadasi was considered anitya sumangali, a woman eternally free from the adversity of widowhood. She would then perform her ritual and artistic duties in the temple. The puberty ceremonies were not only a religious occasion, but also a community feast and celebration in which the local elites also participated.
The 1956 Orissa Gazette references Devadasis dances. They had two daily rituals. TheBahara Gaaunis would dance at theSakaala Dhupa. After breakfastLord Jagannatha would give Darshana to thebhaktas (the devotees). In the main hall, a Devadasi, accompanied by musicians and the Rajaguru (the court guru), would dance standing near theGaruda stambha (pillar). They would perform only pure dance, and could be watched by the audience. TheBhitara Gaunis would sing at theBadashinghara, the main ceremony for ornamenting and dressing the God. At bedtime, Lord Jagannatha would first be served by male Sebayatas, who would fan him and decorate him with flowers. After they left, aBhitara Gaauni would then enter the room, stand near the door (Jaya Vijaya), singGita Govinda songs, and perhaps perform a ritualistic dance. Later she would come out and announce that the Lord has gone to sleep and the guard would close the main gate.[citation needed]
A Devadasi was believed to be immune from widowhood and was calledakhanda saubhagyavati ("woman who never separated from good fortune"). Since she was wedded to a divine deity, she was supposed to be one of the especially welcome guests at weddings and was regarded as a bearer of good fortune. At weddings, people would receive a string of thetali (wedding lock) prepared by her, threaded with a few beads from her ownnecklace. The presence of a Devadasi on any religious occasion in the house of a dvija member was regarded as sacred and she was treated with due respect, and was presented with gifts.[48]
IndianNational Commission for Women, which is mandated to protect and promote the welfare of women, collected information on the prevalence of Devadasi culture in various states. The government ofOdisha stated that the Devadasi system is not prevalent in the state. In March 2015,Sasimani Debi, the last devadasi attached toJagannath temple, died thus bringing the curtain down on the institution.[50]
Similarly, the government ofTamil Nadu wrote that this system has been eradicated and there are now no Devadasis in the state.Andhra Pradesh has identified 16,624 Devadasis within its state. TheKarnataka State Women's University found more than 80,000 Devadasis inKarnataka in 2018; while a government study found 40,600 in 2008.[51] The government ofMaharashtra did not provide the information as sought by the commission. However, the state government provided statistical data regarding the survey conducted by them to sanction a "Devadasi Maintenance Allowance". A total of 8,793 applications were received and after conducting a survey 6,314 were rejected and 2,479 Devadasis were declared eligible for the allowance. At the time of sending the information, 1,432 Devadasis were receiving this allowance.
According to a study by the Joint Women's Programme of Bangalore for National Commission for Women, girls who have to accept becoming a Devadasi, few reasons were provided, which included dumbness, deafness, poverty, and others.[52] Thelife expectancy of Devadasi girls is low compared to the average of the country, it is rare to find Devadasis older than fifty.[52]
| Year | Title and description | Medium |
|---|---|---|
| 1810 | Les bayadères, a French opera in three acts. Music byCharles-Simon Catel, libretto byVictor-Joseph Étienne de Jouy, based onVoltaire'sL'éducation d'un prince. | opera |
| 1976 | Bala a documentary on dance performance ofBalasaraswati, directed bySatyajit Ray. A joint production of theGovernment of Tamil Nadu and theNational Centre for the Performing Arts.[53] | documentary |
| 1984 | Giddh. Movie portraying the theme of exploitation of young girls in the name of Devadasi tradition. Set in villages of Maharashtra and Karnataka. StarringOm Puri andSmita Patil.[54] | movie |
| 1987 | Mahananda, a Hindi film on the life of a Devadasi in Maharashtra, Produced and directed by Mohan Kavia.[55] | documentary |
| 2000-2001 | Krishnadasi. Television series onSunTV, based onTamil novelKrishnadasi byIndra Soundar Rajan. | TV series |
| 2002-2006 | Rudra Veenai. Television series onSunTV. A Devadasi lineage with a critical role in the story that revolves around a mysterious musical instrument. | TV series |
| 2009 | Jogwa, a national award-winning Marathi feature film; a love story revolving around Dev Dasi. | movie |
| 2011 | Sex, Death, and the Gods, aBBC Storyville documentary series directed byBeeban Kidron[56] | documentary series |
| 2011 | Balasaraswati: Her Art and Life. A biography ofBalasaraswati.[57][58] | book |
| 2012 | Prostitutes of God. A controversial documentary on the lives of Devadasi sex workers.The Vice Guide to Travel[59] | documentary |
| 2016 | Krishnadasi. Television series onColors TV depicting the lives of Devadasis married toKrishna. | documentary series |
| 2016 | Agnijal Television series onStar Jalsha. A Bengali romantic drama between a King and a Devadasi. | TV series |
| 2021 | Shyam Singha Roy, Telugu supernatural drama-thriller that includes the sexual exploitation of young Devadasis in the late 1960s in West Bengal. StarringNani andSai Pallavi. | movie |
| 2024 | The Shameless, Hindi-language thriller by Bulgarian directorKonstantin Bojanov featuring a Devadasi protagonist played by Omara Shetty. | movie |
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