a:Frederick VI wasregent forhis father, so ruled asde facto king from 14 April 1784; he continued to rule Denmark after theTreaty of Kiel until his death on 3 December 1839.
b: Estimated 825,000 in Denmark, 440,000 in Norway and 50,000 in Iceland[6]
c: 929,000 in Denmark, 883,000 in Norway and 47,000 in Iceland[7]
The state's inhabitants were mainlyDanes,Norwegians andGermans, and also includedFaroese,Icelanders andInuit in the Norwegian overseas possessions, aSami minority in northern Norway, as well as other indigenous peoples. The main cities of Denmark–Norway wereCopenhagen,Christiania (Oslo),Altona,Bergen andTrondheim, and the primary official languages were Danish and German, but Norwegian, Icelandic, Faroese, Sami and Greenlandic were also spoken locally.[9][10]
In 1380,Olaf II of Denmark inherited the Kingdom of Norway, titled as Olaf IV, after the death of his fatherHaakon VI of Norway, who was married to Olaf's motherMargaret I. Margaret I was ruler of Norway from her son's death in 1387 until her own death in 1412. Denmark, Norway, andSweden established and formed theKalmar Union in 1397. Following Sweden's departure in 1523, the union was effectively dissolved. From 1536/1537, Denmark and Norway formed apersonal union that would eventually develop into the 1660 integrated state called Denmark–Norway by modern historians, at the time sometimes referred to as the "Twin Kingdoms". Prior to 1660, Denmark–Norway wasde jure a constitutional andelective monarchy in which the King's power was somewhat limited; in that year it became one of the most stringentabsolute monarchies in Europe, and was shortly thereafter, in 1665, formalized by an absolutistconstitution, theKing's Law.
The Dano-Norwegian union lasted until 1814,[11] when theTreaty of Kiel decreed that Norway (except for the Faroe Islands, Iceland, and Greenland) be ceded to Sweden. The treaty however was not recognized by Norway, which resisted the attempt in the1814 Swedish–Norwegian War. Norway thereafter entered into a much looserpersonal union with Sweden until 1905, when that union was peacefully dissolved.
The term "Kingdom of Denmark" is sometimes used incorrectly to include both countries in the period, since most of the political and economic power emanated from the city of Copenhagen in Denmark. These term also cover the "royal territories" of theOldenburgs as it was in 1460, but excluding the "ducal territories" ofSchleswig andHolstein. The administration used twoofficial languages,Danish andGerman, and for several centuries, both aDanish Chancellery (Danish:Danske Kancelli) and German Chancellery (Danish:Tyske Kancelli) existed.[12][13]
The term "Denmark–Norway" reflects the historical and legal roots of the union. It is adopted from the Oldenburg dynasty's official title. The kings always used the style "King of Denmark and Norway, theWends and theGoths" (Konge af Danmark og Norge, de Venders og Gothers). Denmark and Norway, sometimes referred to as the "Twin Realms" (Tvillingerigerne) of Denmark–Norway, had separate legal codes and currencies, and mostly separate governing institutions. Following the introduction ofabsolutism in 1660, the centralisation of government meant a concentration of institutions in Copenhagen. Centralisation was supported in many parts of Norway, where the two-year attempt by Sweden to controlTrøndelag had met strong local resistance and resulted in a complete failure for the Swedes and a devastation of the province. This allowed Norway to further secure itself militarily for the future through closer ties with the capital Copenhagen.
From the 17th century, the kingdoms acquired colonies inAfrica, theCaribbean andIndia. At its height the empire was about 2,655,564.76 km2 (1,025,319 sq mi),[b] after the dissolution of the union, in 1814, all the overseas territories became a part of Denmark.
Denmark–Norway maintained numerous colonies from the 17th to 19th centuries over various parts around India. Colonies included the town ofTranquebar andSerampore. The last settlements Denmark had control over were sold to theUnited Kingdom in 1845. Rights in theNicobar Islands were sold in 1869.
Centred on theVirgin Islands, Denmark–Norway established the Danish West Indies. This colony was one of the longest-lived of Denmark, until it was sold to theUnited States in 1917. It became theU.S. Virgin Islands.
In theGold Coast region of West Africa, Denmark–Norway also over time had control over various colonies and forts. The last remaining forts were sold to theUnited Kingdom in 1850, from Denmark.
TheCarta marina, an early map of theNordic countries, made around the end of the Kalmar Union and the start of Denmark–Norway
The three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden united in theKalmar Union in 1397. Sweden broke out of this union and re-entered it several times, until 1521, when Sweden finally left the Union, leaving Denmark–Norway (including overseas possessions in the North Atlantic and the island ofSaaremaa in modernEstonia). During theCount's Feud, where the Danish crown was contested between ProtestantOldenburg KingChristian III and Catholic KingChristian II, the relatively Catholic realm of Norway also wished to leave the union in the 1530s, but was unable to do so due to Denmark's superior military might. Following this, King Christian completely united the kingdoms to reduce the chances of further uprisings, leaving nearly no separations but name.
Artwork depicting ships passing by the city ofHelsingborg, which overlooked the Oresund
TheBaltic Sea was one of the most lucrative trade spots in Europe. The GermanHanseatic League used to be the dominant party in the region, but the slow collapse of the League allowed for Denmark–Norway to begin enforcing their control in the area. Denmark–Norway had apowerful navy, and with their control over theOresund were able to enforce theSound Tolls, a tax on passing ships. These tolls made up two thirds of Denmark–Norway’s state income, allowing kings such asChristian IV to become extremely rich.[citation needed]
Denmark–Norway also sought to expand into the eastern Baltic Sea. They controlled the island ofGotland, which was a major trading post, and using his wealth, KingFrederick II purchased the island ofOsel in 1560.[8] Denmark–Norway fiercely guarded their hegemony, destroying any new competitors in the Baltic. WhenPoland-Lithuania attempted to build a navy in 1571, the Danish-Norwegian fleet destroyed or captured much of the Polish fleet in theBattle of Hel.[citation needed]
Christian III, who had relied on Swedish aid in the Count's Feud, kept peaceful relations with Sweden throughout his reign. However, Frederick II was quite hostile towards the Swedes.[citation needed]
Another major factor in the war were Sweden's goals inLivonia. Both Denmark–Norway and Sweden, along withRussia, sought to control the previously Hanseatic region, as it was extremely important in controlling the Baltic Sea. When Denmark purchased Osel,Duke Magnus, brother of King Frederick II was granted control of the island. Magnus attempted to claim himself King ofEstonia, but he was kicked out by the Russian army. The Estonians, who were fearful of the Russians, contacted KingEric XIV of Sweden for protection. Sweden then annexed Estonia, securing the region under their rule.[citation needed]
After Eric introduced blockades in an attempt to hinder trade withRussia (Sweden and Russia were disputing over Estonia),Lübeck and thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth joined Denmark–Norway in a war alliance. Attempts at diplomacy were made, but neither party was particularly interested in peace. When Frederick II included the traditionally Swedish insignia of three crowns into his own coat of arms, the Swedes interpreted this as a Danish claim over Sweden. In response, Erik XIV of Sweden (reigned 1560–1568) added the insignia of Norway and Denmark to his own coat of arms.[8]
Denmark–Norway then carried out some naval attacks on Sweden, which effectively started the war. After seven years of fighting, the conflict concluded in 1570 with astatus quo ante bellum.
Because of Denmark–Norway's dominion over the Baltic Sea (dominium maris baltici) and theNorth Sea, Sweden had the intention of avoiding paying Denmark'sSound Toll. Swedish kingCharles IX's way of accomplishing this was to try to set up a new trade route throughLapland and northern Norway. In 1607 Charles IX declared himself "King of the Lapps in Nordland" and started collecting taxes in Norwegian territory.[citation needed]
Denmark–Norway and KingChristian IV protested against the Swedish actions, as they had no intentions of letting another independent trade route open; Christian IV also had an intent of forcing Sweden to rejoin its union with Denmark–Norway. In 1611 Denmark–Norway finally invaded Sweden with 6,000 men and took the city ofKalmar. On 20 January 1613, theTreaty of Knäred was signed, in which Norway's land route from Sweden was regained by incorporating Lapland into Norway, and Swedish payment of theÄlvsborg Ransom for two fortresses which Denmark–Norway had taken in the war. However, Sweden achieved an exemption from the Sound Toll.[citation needed]
Not long after the Kalmar war, Denmark–Norway became involved in another greater war, in which they fought together with the mainly north German and other Protestant states against the Catholic states led by GermanCatholic League.
The recent defeat of theProtestant League in both thePalatinate andBohemian Campaigns, the Protestant nations of theDutch Republic,England, and theLower Saxon Circle, along with France, the latter of which aiming to weaken theHabsburgs, promised to fund Denmark–Norway's operations if Christian IV decided to intervene on behalf of the Protestants.[8][14] With the money provided by the aforementioned states, along with his own personal fortune, Christian could hire a large army of mercenaries.
Christian IV long sought to become the leader of the north German Lutheran states. He also had interests in gaining ecclesiastical posts in Northern Germany, such as thePrince-Bishopric of Verden. However, during theBattle of Lutter in 1626, Denmark–Norway faced a crushing defeat. This led to most of the German Protestant states ceasing their support for Christian IV. After another defeat at theBattle of Wolgast and following theTreaty of Lübeck in 1629, which forbade Denmark–Norway from future intervening in German affairs, Denmark–Norways's participation in the war came to an end.
Halland, occupied by Sweden for a 30-year period under the terms of the Peace of Brömsebro negotiated in 1645, was now ceded.
The Scanian lands and Båhus County were ceded.
Trøndelag and Bornholm provinces, which were ceded in 1658, but which rebelled against Sweden and returned to Danish-Norwegian rule in 1660
Sweden was very successful during the Thirty Years' War, while Denmark–Norway failed to make gains. Sweden saw an opportunity of a change of power in the region. Denmark–Norway had territory surrounding Sweden which appeared threatening, and the Sound Dues were a continuing irritation for the Swedes. In 1643 the Swedish Privy Council determined that the chances of a gain in territory for Sweden in an eventual war against Denmark–Norway would be good. Not long after this, Sweden invaded Denmark–Norway.[citation needed]
Denmark was poorly prepared for the war, and Norway was reluctant to attack Sweden, which left the Swedes in a good position.[citation needed]
The Dano-Swedish War (1657–1658), a part of the Second Northern War, was one of the most devastating wars for the Dano-Norwegian kingdoms. After a huge loss in the war, Denmark–Norway was forced in theTreaty of Roskilde to give Sweden a quarter of its territory. This included Norwegian province ofTrøndelag andBåhuslen, all remaining Danish provinces on the Swedish mainland, and the island ofBornholm.
However, two years later, in 1660, there was a follow-up treaty, theTreaty of Copenhagen, which gave Trøndelag and Bornholm back to Denmark–Norway.[citation needed]
Over the course of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, theRigsraad (High Council) of Denmark became weak. In 1660, itwas abolished (the NorwegianRiksråd had not met since Denmark annexed Norway in 1537).
During the royal absolutist state era, Norway kept its separate laws and some institutions, such as a royalChancellor, and separate coinage and army. Norway also had its ownroyal standard flag until 1748, after that theDannebrog became the only official merchant flag in the union.[15] Denmark–Norway became anabsolutist state and Denmark ahereditary monarchy, as Norwayde jure had been since 1537. These changes were confirmed in theLeges regiae signed on 14 November 1665, stipulating that all power lay in the hands of the king, who was only responsible to God.[16]
In Denmark, the kings also began stripping rights from the Danish nobility. The Danish and Norwegian nobility saw a population decline during the 1500s, which allowed the Crown to seize more land for itself.[8] The growing wealth of the Danish-Norwegian kings due to the Oresund allowed them fight wars without consent from the nobility and Danish Rigsraad, meaning that Danish-Norwegian kings slowly gained more and more absolute authority over time.
Denmark had lost itsprovinces in Scania after the Treaty of Roskilde and was always eager to retrieve them, but as Sweden had grown into a great power it would not be an easy task. However,Christian V saw an opportunity when Sweden got involved in theFranco-Dutch War, and after some hesitation Denmark–Norway invaded Sweden in 1675.[citation needed]
Although the Danish-Norwegian assault began as a great success, the Swedes led by 19-year-oldCharles XI counter-attacked and took back the land that was being occupied. The war was concluded with the French dictating peace, with no permanent gains or losses to either of the countries.[citation needed]
During theFrench Revolutionary Wars, Denmark–Norway initially attempted to remain neutral and continue to trade with both France and Britain, though when it entered theSecond League of Armed Neutrality the British considered this to be a hostile action and defeated a Danish fleetoff Copenhagen in 1801. Six years later during theNapoleonic Wars, the British sent an expedition whichbesieged and occupied Copenhagen. Britain also captured most of the Dano-Norwegian navy, incorporating most of their prizes into theRoyal Navy and destroying the rest. The Dano-Norwegian navy was caught unprepared for any military operation and the British found their ships still in dock after the winter season. The Dano-Norwegians were more concerned about preserving their continued neutrality and the entire Dano-Norwegian army was therefore gathered atDanevirke in the event of a French attack, leaving much of Denmark undefended. The British attack led the Dano-Norwegians into an alliance with France, although without a fleet they could do little.[citation needed]
Denmark–Norway was defeated and KingFrederick VI had to cede the Kingdom of Norway to the KingCharles XIII of Sweden 14 January 1814 at theTreaty of Kiel, but Norway's overseas possessions were kept by Denmark. The Norwegians objected to the terms of this treaty, and a constitutional assembly declared Norwegian independence on 17 May 1814 and elected the Crown PrinceChristian Frederik as king of independent Norway. Followinga Swedish invasion, Norway was forced to accept apersonal unionbetween Sweden and Norway, but retained its liberal constitution and separate institutions, except for the foreign service. Theunion was dissolved in 1905.[citation needed]
After 1660, Denmark–Norway consisted of five formally separate parts (the Kingdom ofDenmark, the Kingdom ofNorway, theDuchy of Holstein, theDuchy of Schleswig and theCounty of Oldenburg[c]). Norway had its separate laws and some institutions, and separate coinage and army. Culturally and politically Denmark became dominant. While Denmark remained a largely agricultural society, Norway was industrialized from the 16th century and had a highly export-driven economy; Norway's shipping, timber and mining industries made Norway "the developed and industrialized part of Denmark-Norway" and an economic equal of Denmark.[17]
Denmark and Norway complemented each other and had a significantinternal trade, with Norway relying on Danish agricultural products and Denmark relying on Norway's timber and metals. Norway was also the more egalitarian part of the twin kingdoms; in Norway the King (i.e. the state) owned much of the land, while Denmark was dominated by large noble landowners. Denmark had aserfdom-like institution known asStavnsbånd which restricted men to the estates they were born on; all farmers in Norway on the other hand were free, could settle anywhere and were on average more affluent than Danish farmers. For many Danish people who had the possibility to leave Denmark proper, such as merchants and civil servants, Norway was seen as an attractive country of opportunities. The same was the case for the Norwegians, and many Norwegians migrated to Denmark, like the famous authorLudvig Holberg.[citation needed]
Danish – officially recognized, dominant language, used by most of the unions nobility, was also church language in Denmark, Norway, Greenland, the Faroe Islands and parts of Schleswig.
High German – officially recognized, used by a minority of the nobility, and church language in Holstein and parts of Schleswig.
Low German – not officially recognized, the main spoken language in Holstein and parts of Schleswig. Spoken to some degree mostly by Hanseatic traders In Bergen.
Latin – commonly used in foreign relations, and popular as a second language among some of the nobility.
Norwegian – not officially recognized, mostly used as a spoken language in Norway.
Icelandic – recognized as a church language in Iceland after the Reformation, used as a spoken and written language in Iceland.
Faroese – not officially recognized, mostly used as a spoken language on the Faroe Islands.
Sámi languages – not officially recognized, spoken by Sami people in Norway.
Protestantism had been a religious movement in Denmark ever since the reign ofChristian II. Though the country remainedCatholic during the reign ofFrederick I, and in Norway it was not a big movement at that time. But the victory in theCount's Feud secured Denmark under the Protestant King Christian III, and in 1537 he also secured Norway, creating the union between the two kingdoms.[8]
In the following years, Denmark–Norway was among the countries to followMartin Luther after theProtestant Reformation, and thus establishedLutheran Protestantism as official religion in place of Roman Catholicism. Lutheran Protestantism prevailed through the union's life span. TheChurch of Denmark and theChurch of Norway was founded during this time as well. The introduction of Lutheranism in Denmark–Norway was also a political move. Due to the creation of state churches, the king had the authority to seize church properties, levy his own church tithes, and stop paying taxes to thePapacy. This helped in Denmark–Norway's absolutism and increased the wealth of its kings.[8]
There was one other religious "reformation" in the kingdoms during the rule ofChristian VI, a follower ofPietism. The period from 1735 until his death in 1746 has been nicknamed "the State Pietism", as new laws and regulations were established in favor of Pietism. Though Pietism did not last for a substantial time, numerous new small pietistic resurrections occurred over the next 200 years. In the end, Pietism was never firmly established as a lasting religious grouping, but policies enacted by the "pietist king" affects citizens of Denmark, Norway and Iceland to this day, like the Holiday Peace Act.
Although the Dano–Norwegian union was generally viewed favourably in Denmark and Norway at the time of its dissolution in 1814, some 19th-century Norwegian writers disparaged the union as a "400-year night". Some modern historians describe the idea of a "400-year night" as a myth that was created as a rhetorical device in the struggle against theSwedish–Norwegian union, inspired by 19th-centurynational-romanticist ideas.[citation needed] Other historians describe the union as a political, cultural and economic disaster.[18] Danes were placed in all positions of power, and Norwegian concerns were ignored and Norwegian needs were neglected. There were no educational institutions constructed, and after several strategic and military failures by danish kings the union saw Norway seed several tax lands such as Greenland, Iceland, Shetland and Orkney, and provinces in Scandinavia proper[19]
Since the late 19th century the Danish–Norwegian union was increasingly viewed in a more nuanced and favourable light in Norway with a stronger focus on empirical research, and historians have highlighted that the Norwegian economy thrived and that Norway was one of the world's wealthiest countries during the entire period of union with Denmark. Historians have also pointed out that Norway was a separate state, with its own army, legal system and other institutions, with significant autonomy in its internal affairs, and that it was primarily governed by a local elite of civil servants who identified as Norwegian, albeit in the name of the "Danish" King. Norwegians were also well represented in the military, civil service and business elites of Denmark–Norway, and in the administration of the colonies in the Caribbean and elsewhere. Norway benefited militarily from the combined strength of Denmark–Norway in the wars with Sweden and economically from its trade relationship with Denmark in which Norwegian industry enjoyed a legal monopoly in Denmark while Denmark supplied Norway with agricultural products.[20][21]
^(Danish andNorwegian:Danmark–Norge; also known as theDano-Norwegian Realm (Det dansk-norske rige),Twin Realms (Tvillingerigerne) or theOldenburg Monarchy (Oldenburg-monarkiet)
^abcdefgLockhart, Paul Douglas (2007).Denmark, 1513–1660: The Rise and Decline of a Renaissance Monarchy. Oxford (GB) New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-927121-4.
^"Myten Om 400-årsnatten".www.aftenbladet.no (in Norwegian Bokmål). 15 May 2008.Archived from the original on 14 January 2024. Retrieved2 February 2022.
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