Demons may or may not also be considered to be devils: minions ofthe Devil.[2] In many traditions, demons are independent operators, with different demons causing different types of evils (destructive natural phenomena, specific diseases, etc.). In religions featuring a principal Devil (e.g. Satan) locked in an eternal struggle with God, demons are often also thought to be subordinates of the principal Devil. As lesserspirits doing the Devil's work, they have additional duties— causing humans to havesinful thoughts and tempting humans to commit sinful actions.[5]
The originalAncient Greek worddaimōn (δαίμων) did not carry negative connotations, as it denotes a spirit or divine power.[6] The Greek conception of adaimōn notably appears in the philosophical works ofPlato, where it describes the divine inspiration ofSocrates. In Christianity, morally ambivalentdaimōn were replaced by demons, forces of evil only striving for corruption.[7] Such demons are not the Greek intermediary spirits, but hostile entities, already known in Iranian beliefs.[8] InWestern esotericism andRenaissance magic, which grew out of an amalgamation ofGreco-Roman magic, JewishAggadah, and Christian demonology, a demon is believed to be a spiritual entity that may beconjured and controlled.
Belief in demons remains an important part of many modern religions andoccult traditions. Demons are still feared largely due to their alleged power to possess living creatures. In contemporaryWestern esoteric traditions, demons may be used as metaphors for inner psychological processes ("inner demons").
TheAncient Greek wordδαίμων (daimōn) denotes a spirit or divine power, much like theLatingenius ornumen.Daimōn most likely came from the Greek verbdaiesthai ('to divide' or'distribute').[9] The Greek conception of adaimōn notably appears in the philosophical works ofPlato, where it describes the divine inspiration ofSocrates. The original Greek worddaimōn does not carry the negative connotation initially understood by implementation of theKoineδαιμόνιον (daimonion),[6] and later ascribed to any cognate words sharing the root.
The Greek terms do not have any connotations of evil or malevolence. By the early centuries of theRoman Empire,cult statues were seen, byPagans and their Christian neighbors alike, as inhabited by the numinous presence of theGreco-Roman gods: "Like pagans, Christians still sensed and saw the gods and their power, and as something, they had to assume, lay behind it, by an easy traditional shift of opinion they turned these pagandaimones into malevolent 'demons', the troupe ofSatan. Far into theByzantine period, Christians eyed their cities' old pagan statuary as a seat of the demons' presence. It was no longer beautiful, it was "infested."[10] The term had first acquired its negative connotations in theSeptuagint translation of theHebrew Bible into Greek, which drew on the mythology ofancient Semitic religions. This was then inherited by the Koine text of theNew Testament.
The English use ofdemon as synonym for devils goes back at least as far as about 825. The German word (Dämon), however, is different from devil (Teufel) and demons as evil spirits, and akin to the original meaning ofdaimōn.[11] The WesternModern era conception of demons, as in theArs Goetia, derives seamlessly from the ambientpopular culture ofLate Antiquity.
Mesopotamian demonology had strong influence on laterHebrew andChristian concepts of demons,[12] such asshedu fromChaldean mythology.[13] The demons of Mesopotamia were generally hostile spirits of lesser power than a deity.[12] Since both nature and culture were in constant change, neither were considered part of a divine cosmos.[14] According to the Babylonian creation epicEnūma Eliš, both gods and demons are the children ofTiamat, the goddess ofprimordial chaos.[15] The demons were engendered by Tiamat as an act of revenge in reaction to the gods slaying her primordial partnerAbzu.[14] In the Babylonian tale of the Great Flood, since gods promised to never flood humanity again, instead installed the demoness Lamaštu, to kill humans in order to avoid excessive multiplication.[16]
Some demons were evil spirits of those who died in misery, while other demons were nature demons causing harm by carrying plagues, nightmares, causing headaches, and storms.[16][12] To protect oneself from demons, one were to wear amulets, using magic, or seeking refuge among another demon or deity.[12][16] On an ontological level, in early Semitic history, deities and demons often shed into another, as the distinction was of no importance for the believer.[17]
Many demonic beings were home to theunderworld,[18] sometimes referred to as "offspring ofarali".[18] These demons ascend from the underworld and terrorize mortals.[18] One class of demons that were believed to reside in the underworld were known asgalla;[19] their primary purpose appears to have been to drag unfortunate mortals back to Kur.[19] They are frequently referenced in magical texts,[20] and some texts describe them as being seven in number.[20] Several extant poems describe thegalla dragging the godDumuzid into the underworld.[21] Like many other Mesopotamian demonsgalla could also fulfill a protective role.[21] In a hymn from KingGudea ofLagash (c. 2144 – 2124 BCE), a minor god named Ig-alima is described as "the greatgalla ofGirsu".[21]
TheZoroastrian concept of demons (Daeva, laterdīv)[23] had strong influence on theAbrahamic religions, especiallyChristianity andIslam. By elevatingAhura Mazda to the one supreme God, the founderZoroaster relegated the daevas to demons.[24] Emphasizingfree-will, Zoroaster taught that demons became evil by their own volition in rejecting truth over falsehood.[24] At a later stage,Mazdaism makesAhriman, the principle of Evil (i.e. the Devil), the creator of demons and leader of daevas.[25]
The battle between the hosts of deities against evil demons (dīv anddruz) are described in theBundahishn.[26] Humankind lives in a world between the good powers of God (Ahura Mazda) and the Devil (Ahriman) and suffers corruption through defection of humankind. Therefore, Zorastrianism proposes a threefold nature for humans: divine, animalistic, and demonic.[27] As such, humans are obligated to keep fighting the demonic traits.[27] After death, people must cross theChinvat Bridge to enter paradise. However, those who have chosen evil in their life will fall into the pit of hell. In hell, the damned are tormented by the demons.[28][29]
In antiquity, belief in demonic agents of misfortune were widespread.[33] The early Christian community took it for granted that people outside the Judeo-Christian community were worshipping demons.[34]Conversion to Christianity meant renunciation of the demons by the bearers of theHoly Spirit.[35]
By the end of the sixth century, theMediterranean Christian society widely considered themselves to be unequivocally Christian, with an exception to Jews, the last record of worshipping another pre-Christian deity being in 570s.[36]
Magical rites, charms, and beliefs in spiritual entities were prominent in pre-Christian Europe.[37] While the Church officially declared such beliefs asfalse,[38] the persistance of such beliefs among the wider populations led Christian monks to assimilate Christian with non-Christian rites.[38] In order to do so, non-Christian symbols and as pagan deities have been substituted byJesus Christ.[38][39] To sanction the invocation of non-Christian supernatural powers, Christian missionaries, such asJohn Cassian in the fifth century,[38] declared the pagan gods to be demons, servants ofLucifer, who bring disorder to the world.[40] Many pagan nature spirits likedwarfs andelves thus became seen as demons, servants of the supreme Devil. A difference was made betweenmonsters and demons. The monsters, regarded as distorted humans, probably without souls, were created so that people might be grateful to God that they did not suffer in such a state; they ranked above demons in existence and still claimed a small degree of beauty and goodness as they had not turned away from God.[41]
In Medieval Christianity, demons and spirits were generally considered to be fallen angels. Morally ambivalent nature spirits, such asfairies from Irish and Scandinavianfolktales were often explained as angels who remained neutral during thewar of heaven.[42][43] They became spirits of the place they fell into when banished to earth.[43] Although considered neutral spirits earlier, laterProtestant thinkers increasingly associated them with Satan and considered them to be demons.[44]
Ali slaying demons with his swordZulfiqar in a Persian manuscript. As evident from the poetry of Sanā'ī Ghaznavī, the sword is believed to be made from fire (آتش), able to kill not only a body but also a soul.[45]
In Islamic culture, demons (dīv) share many anthropomorphic attributes with the Arabianjinn.[46][47](p 37) Like the jinn from Islamic traditions, they can enter sexual relationships with humans and sire offspring.[48] Nonetheless, demons differ from jinn as they are perceived as malign creatures.[48] Within context of theIslamic belief system, demons are considered to be yet another creature ofGod, rather than independent parts of the world,[49][50](p452) as evident fromAbu Ali Bal'ami's interpretation ofTarikh al-Tabari[47](p40) and theSüleymanname (written at the time ofSuleiman the Magnificent).[51]
Demons are believed to be vanquished by sacred symbols. The content of the symbol depends on the prevailing religion of the culture. Among Turks, thebasmalah ("invocation of the name of Allah") is used to ward off demons,[52] while among Armenians, the symbol of the cross is utilized.[53] Common features of these Middle Eastern demons are their immortality and pernicious nature, they can turn invisible, and can be enslaved when pierced by a silver needle.[53] Demons are believed to be mostly active at night and a bad smell in the air or sudden change in temperature would announce their presence.[54] It is generally accepted that demons can be subjugated as they are said to be enslaved by legendary heroes (Solomon in the Quran andJamshid in Persian legends).[55] Due to their reluctant nature, even enslaved, they do always the opposite of what has been commanded.[48] In some tales, supernatural powers are attributed to them, such as causing sickness, mental illnesses, or even turn humans to stone.[56]
Such demons frequently appear throughout literature as personification of human vices. The protagonist must overcome their own animalistic nature, the demons, in order to heed his rational inclination and achieve salvation.[57][58]
You think, as I infer from your words, that a demon is the same as a devil, which is not the case. For a demon is said to be any invisible being using reason, as if knowing. Of these the two high orders are called calodemons, that is, 'good knowing ones', the lower order is called cacodemon, that is, 'evil knowing one', for calos means 'good', cacos 'bad'.[59]
In the sixteenth century, among proponents of demons as ambivalent spirits,Paracelsus was the most vocal.[61] He asserted that these beings are spirit-like and thus not human, but they have bodies and flesh and are thus, not angels.[61]Robert Kirk (1644–1692) integratedfairies into his theories of intermediary spirits.[62] He suggested that these beings are structured similar to human societies, intelligent beings who eat and drink yet invisible to most humans.[63] Their views were rejected by demonologists and religious orthodoxy and labelled as "atheistic". They denied that spirits could have an autonomeous existence and that they are demons with the sole purpose of deceiving and harming people.[64]
A variety of spirits or the assumption that demons might be morally ambivalent is encouraged bynecromancy.[65] Here, a necromancer supposedly converses with the spirits of the dead. A ceremonial magician usually consults agrimoire, which gives the names and abilities of demons as well as detailed instructions for conjuring and controlling them. Grimoires are not limited to demons – some give instructions for the invocation of deity, a process calledtheurgy. The use of ceremonial magic to call demons is also known asgoetia, a word derived from the Greek wordgoes, which originally denoteddiviners,magicians, healers, andseers.[66]
The classiconi, a Japanese ogre-like creature which often has horns and often translated into English as "demon".
In the 16th to early 17th centuries, the idea – inherited from Renaissance magic and occultism – that demonic forces could be conjured and controlled may have paved the way for the development of modern sciences.[67] In Hermetic- and Kabbalist philosophy, demons could be subjugated and shaped the idea that humans can control their social environment and their surrounding natural forces.[68]
TheAge of Enlightenment conceptualizes humans asautonomous individuals, mostly independent from external invisible forces, such as demons or gods ruling over human fate.[69] While in the pre-modern period, spirits and demons were assigned to various natural phenomena, therationalistic school of thought, increasingly rejected the attribution of demons to unknown causes.[70][69]
The rejection of demons as a form of superstition was also welcomed by religious perspective, considered to be a "removal" of remaining pagan beliefs. According toWouter Hanegraaff, demons arepagan beliefs, removed by the Age of Enlightenment.[71]
Many considered demons to be non-existent and alleged visions of demons and ghosts were explained as results of superstition. By that local religious customs were also oppressed in favor of nationwide (religious) ideas or deities.[72] Wilkinson Duran states that people who believe in demons are often marginalized in the United States.[69]
The rejection of demons as the cause of natural events also contributed to the association of demons with delusions and merely mental phenomena. For example, the notion that demons could possess an individual, stripped the individual away from theirpersonhood and was at odds with modern Western philosophy. The most prominent ones, such as theAmerican Dream andcapitalism, imply the belief that everyone is responsible for their own fate and not at the mercy of external forces, thus has no room left for demons or demonic possessions.[69] The concept of demons has nevertheless not disappeared from the public, permeating media, arts, and psychology.[70]
It has been suggested that parts of this page (Demon) bemoved intoDevil. (Discuss)(March 2025)
Privation theories of evil, such asgood–evil dualism andneo-platonism, often consider matter to be a refractory element in the cosmos instigating evil.[73] In religious beliefs, applying such theories of evil, matter (Greek:hyleὝλη) becomes a sphere of demonic activity and transforms matter into the devilish principle par excellence.[74]
Gnosticism largely relies on Greek and Persian dualism, especially onPlatonism. In accordance with Platonism, they regarded theidea as good while considering the material and conscious world to be inherently evil.[75] The demonized star-deities of late Persian religion became associated with a demon, thus identifying the seven observable planets with anArchon (demonic ruler).[75] These demons rule over the earth and the realm of planets, representing different desires and passions.[76] According toOrigen, theOphites depicted the world as surrounded by the demonicLeviathan.[76]
Like in Christianity, the termdaimons was used for demons and refers to both the Archons as well as to their demonic assistants.Judas Iscariot is, in theGospel of Judas, portrayed as the thirteenthdaimon for betraying Jesus and a supporter of the Archons.[77]
Examples of Gnostic portrayals of demons can be found in theApocryphon of John in which they are said to have helped to construct the physicalAdam[78] and inPistis Sophia which states they are ruled over byHekate and punish corrupt souls.[79]
Manichaeism was a major religion[82] founded in the third century AD by theParthian[83] prophetMani (c. 216–274 AD), in theSasanian Empire.[84] One of its key concepts is the doctrine ofTwo Principles and Three Moments. Accordingly, the world could be described as resulting from a past moment, in which two principles (good and evil) were separate, a contemporary moment in which both principles are mixed due to an assault of theworld of darkness on the realm of light, and a future moment when both principles are distinct forever.[85] Thus, evil and demons played a significant role within Manichaean teachings.
There are numberless designations for various groups of demonic entities in Manichaean cosmology.[86] The general term used for the beings of the world of darkness isdiv.[86] Before the demons attacked the realm of light, they have been in constant battle and intercourse against each other.[86] It is only in the realm of darkness demons are described in their physical form. After their assault on the world above, they have been overcome by the Living Spirit, and imprisoned in the structure of the world.[86] From that point onwards, they impact human's ethical life, and appear as personified ethical qualities, mostly greed, envy, grief, and wrath (desire for destruction).[86]
Ibn al-Jawzi, in his workTalbīs Iblīs ('devils' delusion'), credits the Manichaeans with believing that eachLight andDarkness (God and the Devil) consist of four bodies and one spirit. The bodies ofLight (God) were referred to asangels, while the bodies ofDarkness (Devil) were referred to asifrits.Light andDarkness would multiple by angels and demons respectively.[87]
InThe Book of Giants, one ofthe canonical seven treatises also known from Jewishintertestamental literature, theGrigori (egrēgoroi) beget giant half-demon offspring with human woman. In the Middle Persian version of theBook of Giants they are referred to askʾw, while in theCopticKephalaia asgigas.[86] In accordance with some interpretations ofGenesis 6:1–4,[88] the giant offspring became the ancient tyrannic rulers over mankind, until overthrown by theangels of punishment. Nonetheless, these demons are still active in themicrocosm, such asĀz andĀwarzōg.[86] Views on stars (abāxtarān) are mixed. On one hand, they are regarded as light particles of the world soul fixed in the sky. On the other hand, stars are identified with powers hindering the soul from leaving the material world.[86] TheThird Messenger (Jesus) is said to have chained up demons in the sky. Their offspring, thenephilim (nĕf īlīm) orasrestar (āsarēštārān),Ašqalūn andNebrō'ēl in particular, play instrumental roles in the creation of Adam and Eve.[86] According to Manichaeism, the watchers, known as angels in Jewish lore, are not considered angels, but demons.[86]
There are differing opinions in Judaism about the existence or non-existence of demons (shedim orse'irim).[13] Some Rabbinic scholars assert that demons have existed in Talmudic times, but do not exist regularly in present. When prophecy,divine presence, anddivine inspiration gradually decreased, the demonic powers of impurity have become correspondingly weak, too.[89]
TheHebrew Bible mentions two classes of demonic spirits, these'irim and theshedim. The wordshedim (singularshed orsheyd) appears in two places in the Hebrew Bible.[90] These'irim (singularsa'ir,'male goat') are mentioned once inLeviticus 17:7,[13] probably a recollection ofAssyrian demons in the shape of goats.[91] They might be a metaphorical symbol for life-threatening animals, such ashyenas,ostrichs, andjackals.[92] Theshedim, however, are not pagan demigods, but the foreign gods themselves. They are evil insofar that they are not affiliated with the Jewish deity.[93] These entities appear in a scriptural context ofanimal orchild sacrifice to non-existentfalse gods.[13]
Demons supposedly entered the body and caused the disease while overwhelming or "seizing" the victim. To cure such diseases, it was necessary to draw out the evil demons by certain incantations and talismanic performances, at which theEssenes excelled.[13]Josephus, who spoke of demons as "spirits of the wicked which enter into men that are alive and kill them", but which could be driven out by a certainroot,[95] witnessed such a performance in the presence of the EmperorVespasian[96] and ascribed its origin toKing Solomon. In mythology, there were few defences againstBabylonian demons. The mythicalmaceSharur had the power to slay demons such asAsag, a legendarygallu oredimmu of hideous strength.
In theJerusalem Talmud, notions ofshedim ('demons' or'spirits') are almost unknown or occur only very rarely, whereas in theBabylonian Talmud there are many references toshedim and magical incantations. The existence ofshedim in general was not questioned by most of the BabylonianTalmudists. As a consequence of the rise of influence of the Babylonian Talmud over that of the Jerusalem Talmud, late rabbis, in general, took as fact the existence ofshedim, nor did most of the medieval thinkers question their reality.[97] However, rationalists likeMaimonides andSaadia Gaon and others explicitly denied their existence, and completely rejected concepts of demons, evil spirits, negative spiritual influences, attaching and possessing spirits. They thought the essential teaching aboutshedim and similar spirits is, that they should not be an object of worship, not a reality to be acknowledged or feared.[98] Their point of view eventually became mainstream Jewish understanding.[13]
The opinion of some authors is not clear.Abraham ibn Ezra states that insane people can see the image ofse'irim, when they go astray and ascribe to them powers independent from God. It is not clear from his work, if he considered these images ofse'irim as manifestations of actual spirits or merely delusions.[citation needed] Despite academic consensus,Rabbis disputed that Maimonides denied the existence of demons entirely. He would only dispute the existence of demons in his own life time, but not that demons had existed once.[99]
Occasionally anangel is calledsatan in the Babylon Talmud. Butsatans do not refer to demons as they remain at the service of God: "Stand not in the way of an ox when coming from the pasture, for Satan dances between his horns".[100]
Aggadic tales from the Persian tradition describe theshedim, themazziḳim ("harmers"), and the ruḥin ("spirits"). There were alsolilin ("night spirits"),ṭelane ("shade", or "evening spirits"),ṭiharire ("midday spirits"), and ẓafrire ("morning spirits"), as well as the "demons that bring famine" and "such as cause storm and earthquake".[101][13] According to someaggadic stories, demons were under the dominion of a king or chief, usuallyAsmodai.[102]
InKabbalah, demons are regarded as a necessary part of the divine emanation in the material world and a byproduct of human sin (Qlippoth).[103] After they are created, they assume an existence on their own. Demons would attach themselves to the sinner and start to multiply as an act of self-preservation.[104] Medieval Kabbalists characterize such demons aspunishing angels of destruction. They are subject to the divine will, and do not act independently.[105]
Other demonic entities, such as theshedim, might be considered benevolent. TheZohar classifies them as those who are like humans and submit to the Torah, and those who have no fear of God and are like animals.[106]
The sources of demonic influence were thought to originate from theWatchers orNephilim, who are first mentioned inGenesis 6 and are the focus of1 Enoch Chapters 1–16, and also inJubilees 10. The Nephilim were seen as the source of the sin and evil on Earth because they are referenced in Genesis 6:4 before the story of theFlood.[107] In Genesis 6:5, God sees evil in the hearts of men.Ethiopic Enoch refers to Genesis 6:4–5, and provides further description of the story connecting the Nephilim to the corruption of humans. According to theBook of Enoch, sin originates when angels descend from heaven and fornicate with women, birthing giants. The Book of Enoch shows that thesefallen angels can lead humans to sin through direct interaction or through providing forbidden knowledge. Most scholars understand the text, that demons originate from the evil spirits of the deceased giants, cursed by God to wander the Earth.Dale Martin disagrees with this interpretation, arguing that the ghosts of the Nephilim are distinct. The evil spirits would make the people sacrifice to the demons, but they were not demons themselves.[108] The spirits are stated in Enoch to "corrupt, fall, be excited, and fall upon the earth, and cause sorrow".[109][110]
According to Christian theology, demons are fallen angels.[111][112] They are believed to have been created asgood angels who then turned evil by joiningLucifer in his rebellion againstGod.[113][114] Thismythology is not shared byJudaism or found as such in theNew Testament.[111] The story of fallen angels is a result of interpretation of different Biblical passages in the second and third century.[115]Augustine of Hippo (5th century) established the position, that demons are spirits (angels) who turn away from God, forWestern demonology and for theCatholic Church.[116]
The existence of demons as inherently malicious spirits within Old Testamental texts is absent.[117][118]: 447 Though there are evil spirits sent byYHWH, they can hardly be calleddemons, since they serve and do not oppose the governing deity.[118]: 448 First then theHebrew Bible was translated into Greek, the "gods of other nations" were merged into a single category of demons (daimones) with implied negativity.[119]
The Greek Daimons were associated with demi-divine entities, deities, illnesses andfortune-telling. The Jewish translators rendered them all as demons, depicting their power as nullified comparable to the description ofshedim in theTanakh. Although all these supernatural powers were translated, none were angels, despite sharing a similar function to that of the Greek Daimon. This established a dualism between the angels on God's side and negatively evaluated demons of pagan origin.[120] Their relationship to the God-head became the main difference between angels and demons, not their degree of benevolence. Both angels and demons might be fierce and terrifying. However, the angels act always at service of the high god of the Israelites, differing from the pagan demons, who represent the powers of foreign deities.[121] The Septuagint refers to evil spirits as demons (daimon).[citation needed]
Through the New Testament, demons appear 55 times, and 46 times in reference todemonic possession orexorcisms.[122] Some old English Bible translations such asKing James Version do not have the worddemon in their vocabulary and translate it as 'devil'. As adversaries ofJesus, demons are not morally ambivalent spirits, but evil; causes of misery, suffering, and death.[122] They are not tempters, but the cause of pain, suffering, and maladies, both physical and mental. Temptation is reserved for the devil only.[123] Unlike spirits in pagan beliefs, demons are not intermediary spirits who must be sacrificed for the appeasement of a deity. Possession also shows no trace of positivity, contrary to some pagan depictions ofspirit possession. They are explicitly said to be ruled by the Devil orBeelzebub.[124] Their origin is unclear, the texts take the existence of demons for granted. Many early Christians, likeIrenaeus,Justin Martyr,Clement of Alexandria, andLactantius assumed demons were ghosts of the Nephilim, known from Intertestamental writings.[125] Because of references to Satan as the lord of demons and evil angels of Satan throughout the New Testament, other scholars identified fallen angels with demons.[126] Demons as entirely evil entities, who have been born evil, may not fit the proposed origin of evil in free will, taught in alternate or opposing theologies.[127]
Demons are included in biblical interpretation. In the story of Passover, the Bible tells the story as "the Lord struck down all the firstborn in Egypt" (Exodus 12:21–29). In theBook of Jubilees, which is considered canonical only by theEthiopian Orthodox Church,[128] this same event is told slightly differently: "All the powers of [the demon] Mastema had been let loose to slay all the first-born in the land of Egypt. And the powers of the Lord did everything according as the Lord commanded them." (Jubilees 49:2–4)
In theGenesis flood narrative, the author explains how God was noticing "how corrupt the earth had become, for all the people on earth had corrupted their ways" (Genesis 6:12). In Jubilees, the sins of man are attributed to "the unclean demons [who] began to lead astray the children of the sons of Noah, and to make to err and destroy them" (Jubilees 10:1). In Jubilees, Mastema questions the loyalty of Abraham and tells God to "bid him offer him as a burnt offering on the altar, and Thou wilt see if he will do this command" (Jubilees 17:16). The discrepancy between the story in Jubilees and the story in Genesis 22 exists with the presence ofMastema. In Genesis, God tests the will of Abraham merely to determine whether he is a true follower, however; in Jubilees, Mastema has an agenda behind promoting the sacrifice of Abraham's son, "an even more demonic act than that of Satan in Job".[129] In Jubilees, where Mastema, an angel tasked with tempting mortals into sin and iniquity, requests that God give him a tenth of the spirits of the children of the watchers, demons, in order to aid the process (Jubilees 10:7–9). These demons are passed into Mastema's authority, where once again, an angel is in charge of demonic spirits.
In theTestament of Solomon, written sometime in the first three centuries C.E., the demonAsmodeus explains that he is the son of an angel and a human mother. Another demon describes himself as having died in the "massacre in the age of giants".Beelzeboul, the prince of demons, appears as a fallen angel, not as a demon, but makes people worship demons as their gods.[126]
SinceEarly Christianity, demonology has developed from a simple acceptance of demons to a complex study that has grown from the original ideas taken from Jewish demonology and Christian scriptures.[130] Christian demonology is studied in depth within theRoman Catholic Church,[131] although many other Christian churches affirm and discuss the existence of demons.[132][133]
Building upon the few references todaimon in the New Testament, especially the poetry of the Book of Revelation, Christian writers ofapocrypha from the second century onwards created a more complicated tapestry of beliefs about "demons" that was largely independent of Christian scripture.
While daimons were considered as both potentially benevolent or malevolent,Origen argued againstCelsus that daimons are exclusively evil entities, supporting the later idea of (evil) demons. According to Origen's cosmology, increasing corruption and evil within the soul, the more estranged the soul gets from God. Therefore, Origen opined that the most evil demons are located underground. Besides the fallen angels known from Christian scriptures, Origen talks about Greek daemons, like nature spirits and giants. These creatures were thought to inhabit nature or air and nourish from pagan sacrifices roaming the earth. However, there is no functional difference between the spirits of the underworld and of earth, since both have fallen from perfection into the material world. Origen sums them up asfallen angels and thus equal to demons.[134]
Manyascetics, like Origen andAnthony the Great, described demons as psychological powers, tempting to evil,[135] in contrast to benevolent angels advising good. According toLife of Anthony, written in Greek around 360 byAthanasius of Alexandria, most of the time, the demons were expressed as an internal struggle, inclinations, and temptations. But after Anthony successfully resisted the demons, they would appear in human form to tempt and threaten him even more intensely.[136]
Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite describedevil as "defiancy" and does not giveevil an ontological existence. He explains demons are deficient creatures, who willingly turn themselves towards the unreal and non-existence. Their dangerous nature results not from the power of their nature, but from their tendency to drag others into the "void" and the unreal, away from God.[11]
Michael Psellos proposed the existence of several types of demons, deeply influenced by the material nature of the regions they dwell. The highest and most powerful demons attack the mind of people using their "imaginative action" (phantastikos) to produce illusions in the mind. The lowest demons, on the other hand, are almost mindless, gross, and grunting spirits, which try to possess people instinctively, simply attracted by the warmth and life of humans. These cause diseases, fatal accidents and animalistic behavior in their victims. They are unable to speak, while other lower types of demons might give out false oracles. The demons are divided into:
Leliouria: The highest demons who inhabit the ether, beyond the moon
Aeria: Demons of the air below the moon
Chthonia: Inhabiting the land
Hyraia/Enalia: Dwelling in the water
Bypochtbonia: They live beneath the earth
Misophaes: The lowest type of demon, blind and almost senseless in the lowest hell
Invocation of Saints, holy men and women, especially ascetics, reading the Gospel, holy oil or water is said to drive them out. However, Psellos' schemes have been too inconsistent to answer questions about the hierarchy of fallen angels. The devil's position is impossible to assign in this scheme and it does not respond to living perceptions of felt experience and was considered rather impractical to have a lasting effect or impact on Christian demonology.[137]
The contemporary Roman Catholic Church unequivocally teaches that angels and demons are real beings rather than just symbolic devices. The Catholic Church has a cadre of officially sanctioned exorcists which perform manyexorcisms each year. The exorcists of the Catholic Church teach that demons attack humans continually but that afflicted persons can be effectively healed and protected either by the formal rite of exorcism, authorized to be performed only by bishops and those they designate, or by prayers of deliverance, which any Christian can offer for themselves or others.[138]
At various times in Christian history, attempts have been made to classify demons according to various proposeddemonic hierarchies.
In recent times, scholars doubted that independent demons exist, and rather considers them, aking to Jewishsatan, to be servants of God. According to S. N. Chiu, God is shown sending a demon against Saul in 1 Samuel 16 and 18 in order to punish him for the failure to follow God's instructions, showing God as having the power to use demons for his own purposes, putting the demon under his divine authority.[139] According to theBritannica Concise Encyclopedia, demons, despite being typically associated with evil, are often shown to be under divine control, and not acting of their own devices.[140]
Devils depicted in theBook of Wonders, a late 14th-century Arabic manuscriptZawba'a or Zoba'ah, the demon-king of Friday depicted in theBook of Wonders.
Although virtually absent in theQuran, Muslims generally hold the belief that jinn can possess people.[145] In the tradition ofAsh'ari, it has been considered to be part of the doctrines (aqidah) of the "people of the Sunnah" (ahl as-sunnah wal-jammah'a).[146] For most theologians, (Ashʿaris as well as Muʿtazilis), and in contrast to philosophers, both demons (jinn and devils) and angels are material.[147] All sentient beings are said to be created out from a physical substance: angels from light, jinn from fire and air, devils from fire, and humans from earth.[148]
The Quran emphasizes similarities between humans and jinn. The Quranic phraseal-ins wa al-jinn (الإِنسِ وَالْجِنِّ) puts the jinn to the same position as humans and whereby also rejecting kinship with God.[50](p181) In contrast to demons from thebiblical tradition, the jinn are not a source of evil.[50](p181, 185) In the majority of Muslim writings, the jinn are ephemeral and shadowy creatures and primarily linked to magical practises (both white and black magic), though sometimes to disastrous effects.[149]
While the jinn are morally ambivalent, thešayāṭīn represent malevolent forces akin to the devils of theJudeo-Christian tradition,[150]: 286 and are actively obstructing the execution of God's will.[149] Because of that, they bear less resemblance to humans than the jinn.[50][141] The latter share attributes with humans, such as mortality, whereas thešayāṭīn do not.[151][152](p278)[50](p452) In Muslim popular culture, thešayāṭīn are sometimes depicted asDīv (دیو).[153]
Muslim writers on astrology identified the planetary spirits known from ancient Greek cosmology, with seven demon-kings, often invoked for the preparation ofMagic squares.[154] According to theBook of Wonders each day of the week is assigned to one of therūḥāiya ulia (higher spirits) andrūḥāiya sufula (lower spirits).[155]
Aboriginal Australian cultures have various beings translated into English as "demons" or "devils". The most notable is theBunyip, which was originally a term applied to malevolent spirits in general.[156]Tasmanian mythology in particular has many beings translated as "devils"; these include malicious spirits likeRageowrapper[157] as well as spirits summoned in magic. Tasmanian Aboriginal people would describe these entities as "devils" and related that these spiritual beings as walking alongside Aboriginal people "carrying a torch but could not be seen".[158]
Ram-headed demon. The hands probably outstretch to hold two snakes. From a royal tomb in the Valley of the Kings, Thebes, Egypt. End of the 18th Dynasty, around 1325 BCE
The exact definition ofdemon inEgyptology posed a major problem for modern scholarship, since the borders between a deity and a demon are sometimes blurred and the ancientEgyptian language lacks a term for the modern Englishdemon.[159][160] Both deities and demons can act as intermediaries to deliver messages to humans.[161] By that, they share some resemblance to the Greekdaimon. However, magical writings indicate that ancient Egyptians acknowledged the existence of malevolent demons by highlighting the demon names with red ink.[160] Demons in this culture appeared to be subordinative and related to a specific deity, yet they may have occasionally acted independently of the divine will. The existence of demons can be related to the realm of chaos, beyond the created world.[159] But even this negative connotation cannot be denied in light of the magical texts. The role of demons in relation to the human world remains ambivalent and largely depends on context.
Ancient Egyptian demons can be divided into two classes: "guardians" and "wanderers".[161][162] "Guardians" are tied to a specific place; their demonic activity is topographically defined and their function can be benevolent towards those who have the secret knowledge to face them.[163] Demons protecting the underworld may prevent human souls from entering paradise. Only by knowing the right charms is the deceased able to enter theHalls of Osiris.[164] Here, the aggressive nature of the guardian demons is motivated by the need to protect their abodes and not by their evil essence. Accordingly, demons guarded sacred places or the gates to the netherworld. During thePtolemaic andRoman period, the guardians shifted towards the role ofgenius loci and they were the focus of local and private cults.
The "wanderers" are associated with possession, mental illness, death and plagues. Many of them serve as executioners for the major deities, such asRa orOsiris, when ordered to punish humans on earth or in the netherworld.[163] Wanderers can also be agents of chaos, arising from the world beyond creation to bring about misfortune and suffering without any divine instructions, led only by evil motivations. The influences of the wanderers can be warded off and kept at the borders of the human world by the use of magic, but they can never be destroyed. A sub-category of "wanderers" are nightmare demons, which were believed to cause nightmares by entering a human body.[159]
Chinese folktale, legend and literature are replete with malevolent supernatural creatures who are often rendered "demons" in English translations. These include categories of beings such as theyao妖 – shapeshifters with the power to cause insanity, to inflict poison, and to bring about disease, and the mo魔 – derived from Indian mythology and entering through the influence of Buddhism. In folk belief, these beings are responsible for misfortune, insanity, and illness, and any number of strange phenomena that could not easily be accounted for. Epilepsy and stroke, which led to either temporary or permanent contortions, were generally seen as the results of demonic possession and attacks (中邪).
From the Tang dynasty onwards, belief in shapeshifting foxes, tigers and wolves, amongst other creatures, also featured in Chinese folk belief, partly due to the existence of outlawed fox-spirit cults. Fox demons (狐妖)[170] are described as cunning and lustful, capable of clairvoyance, and of inflicting disease and poisoning at will. They are sometimes seen as beings requiring worship to be appeased or placated. Tiger demons (虎妖)[171] and wolf demons (狼妖)[172] are ravening beings roaming large territories for prey, taking the form of humans to conveniently insert themselves into communities and settlements. Tiger demons are described as being enslave the souls of humans they have killed, turning them into minions. In the superstitious climate of the previous centuries, people mistaken as tigers and wolves in human disguise were often put to death or starved in their cells by magistrates.
Fish (鱼妖) and snake demons (蛇妖)[173] are said to have attempted to assault Confucius. Even insects are capable of being demonic. In one tale, the sighting of a centipede demon (蜈蚣妖) in the form of an old woman without eyes is said to have led to the sickness and death of an entire household.
One notable demon not in the above categories includes the Heisheng or Heiqi黑气 ('Black Calamity' or'Black Air'), a kind of roving vapour demon that inflicts damage to persons and property wherever it roams, sometimes killing where it goes. Another are undefined Poltergeists, sometimes afflicting monasteries, causing serious nuisances, and unable to be exorcised.
The terms Yao (妖), Mo (魔), Gui (鬼), Guai (怪) and Xie (邪) are their various two-character combinations often used to refer to these creatures, but of these terms, only Mo (魔) denotes demons in the religious sense.
China has two classes of beings that might be regarded as demons, and which are generally translated as such:
Yao (妖)[174][175][176][177] – a kind of uncanny supernatural creature, usually with the power to shapeshift, to poison or to cause disease, and to bewilder or enthrall. They are associated with sorcery or sorcery-like powers. They are not always evil in the sense that Western demons or the Chinesemo (魔) are but are represented as having malevolent tendencies and as creatures of ill-omen. They are often invoked as an explanation for strange events, bizarre occurrences, mysterious diseases and horrible accidents. They resemble theunseelie fae of Celtic legend and folklore in their powers and predisposition - and are sometimes translated as'faeries' or'daemons' rather than'demons'.
Mo (魔)[176] – derived from the "Mara" of Buddhism and are almost always evil. This kind of being is morally corrupted and rebels against the moral law and heavenly principle. Taoist cultivators, fallen Buddhist monks, gods and mortals who have succumbed to an evil inclination are said to have become demonic or become diabolical –ru mo. (入魔). As such it is often a condition and a state, rather than always being directly the result of a certain innate heritage. Furthermore, certain beings derived directly from Indian mythology, such as theluocha (罗刹 orraksasha) andyecha (夜叉 oryaksha), however are classed as being innately demonic (魔) types by heritage but are nevertheless represented as being capable of repentance or turning to good.
The Army of Super Creatures – from The Saugandhika Parinaya Manuscript (1821 CE)
In theVeda, gods (deva) and anti-gods (asura) both share the upper world. It is only by the time of theBrahmanas that they are said to inhabit the underworld. The identification ofasura withdemons stems from the description ofasura as "formerly gods" (pūrvadeva). The gods are said to have claimed heaven for themselves and tricked the demons, ending on earth. During the Vedic period, gods aid humans against demons. By that, gods secure their own place in heaven, using humans as tools to defeat their cosmic enemies.[178]
Asura, in the earliest hymns of theRigveda, originally meant any supernatural spirit, either good or bad. Since the/s/ of the Indic linguistic branch is cognate with the/h/ of the Early Iranian languages, the wordasura, representing a category of celestial beings, is a cognate with Old PersianAhura. Ancient Hinduism tells thatDevas (also calledsuras) andAsuras are half-brothers, sons of the same fatherKashyapa; although some of the Devas, such asVaruna, are also called Asuras. Later, duringPuranic age,Asura andRakshasa came to exclusively mean any of a race of anthropomorphic, powerful, possibly evil beings.Daitya (lit. sons of the motherDiti),Danava (lit. sons of the mother "Danu"),Maya Danava,Rakshasa (lit. from "harm to be guarded against"), andasura are incorrectly translated into English as'demon'.[179]
With increase inasceticism during the post-Vedic period, withdrawal of sacrificial rituals was considered a threat to the gods.[178] Ascetic humans or ascetic demons were supposed to be more powerful than gods. Pious, highly enlightenedasuras andRakshasas, such asPrahlada andVibhishana, are not uncommon. Theasura are not fundamentally against the gods, nor do they tempt humans to fall. Many people metaphorically interpret the Asura as manifestations of the ignoble passions in the human mind and as symbolic devices. There were also cases of power-hungry asuras challenging various aspects of the gods, but only to be defeated eventually and seek forgiveness.
Hinduism advocates the reincarnation and transmigration of souls according to one'skarma. Souls (Atman) of the dead are adjudged by theYama and are accorded various purging punishments before being reborn. Humans that have committed extraordinary wrongs are condemned to roam as lonely, often mischief mongers, spirits for a length of time before being reborn. Many kinds of such spirits (Vetalas andPishachas) are recognized in the later Hindu texts. According to Hinduism, demons are not inherently evil beings, but good by following theirdharma what is being evil and deceitful. However, nothing is purely evil or good, and a demon could eventually abandon his demonic nature.
Buddhism classifies sentient beings into six types: Deva, Asura, human, animal, ghost, hell-being. When Buddhism spread, it accommodated itself with indigenous popular ideas about demons.[2] As in Hinduism, all these beings are part of theSaṃsāra.[2] As with devas, Buddhism does not deny the existence of demons, but considers them equally impotent in search forliberation.[2] Demons (bhūta,preta,piśāca) may thus be understood as personifications of correlative mental states projected onto the external cosmos.[180] ThePali Sutras represent the unenlightened people as "possessed" by the demons of "desire" and "craving".[180] These two self-destructive feelings then cause the images of horrorfying demons.[180] In a state of enlightenment, theBuddha has overcome such passions and by that, conquered the demons.[180]
TheAlgonquian people traditionally believe in a spirit called awendigo. The spirit is believed to possess people who then becomecannibals. InAthabaskan folklore, there is a belief inwechuge, a similar cannibal spirit.[citation needed]
A minority of Muslim scholars in the Medieval Age, often associated with theMuʿtazila and theJahmītes, denied that demons (jinn, devils, divs etc.) have physicality and asserted, they could only affect the mind bywaswās (Arabic:وَسْوَاس, 'demonic whisperings in the mind').[146](p 73)[181] Some scholars, likeibn Sina,[182](p 89) rejected the reality of jinn altogether.Al-Jāḥiẓ andal-Masʿūdī, explained jinn and demons as merely psychological phenomena.
In hisKitāb al-Hayawān, al-Jāḥiẓ states that jinn and demons are the product of loneliness. Such a state induces people to mind-games, causingwaswās.[150](p36) Al-Masʿūdī is similarly critical regarding the reality of demons. He states that alleged demonic encounters are the result of fear and "wrong thinking". Alleged encounters are then told to other generations in bedtime stories and poems. When they grow up, they remember such stories in a state of fear or loneliness. This encourages their imaginations, resulting in another alleged demonic encounter.[150](p37)
PsychologistWilhelm Wundt remarked that "among the activities attributed by myths all over the world to demons, the harmful predominate, so that in popular belief bad demons are clearly older than good ones."[183]Sigmund Freud developed this idea and claimed that the concept of demons was derived from the important relation of the living to the dead: "The fact that demons are always regarded as the spirits of those who have diedrecently shows better than anything the influence of mourning on the origin of the belief in demons."[184]
M. Scott Peck, an American psychiatrist, wrote two books on the subject,People of the Lie: The Hope For Healing Human Evil[185] andGlimpses of the Devil: A Psychiatrist's Personal Accounts of Possession, Exorcism, and Redemption.[186] Peck describes in some detail several cases involving his patients. InPeople of the Lie he provides identifying characteristics of an evil person, whom he classified as having a character disorder. InGlimpses of the Devil Peck goes into significant detail describing how he became interested inexorcism in order to debunk themyth ofpossession by evil spirits – only to be convinced otherwise after encountering two cases which did not fit into any category known topsychology orpsychiatry. Peck came to the conclusion that possession was a rare phenomenon related to evil and that possessed people are not actually evil; rather, they are doing battle with the forces of evil.[187]
Although Peck's earlier work was met with widespread popular acceptance, his work on the topics of evil and possession has generated significant debate and derision. Much was made of his association with (and admiration for) the controversialMalachi Martin, aRoman Catholic priest and a formerJesuit, despite the fact that Peck consistently called Martin a liar and a manipulator.[188]
^Martin, Dale Basil. "When Did Angels Become Demons?"Journal of Biblical Literature, vol. 129, no. 4, 2010, pp. 657–58.doi:10.2307/25765960. Accessed 5 Jan 2025.
^Van der Toorn, Karel, Bob Becking, and Pieter Willem van der Horst, eds. Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1999. p. 236
^Van der Toorn, Karel, Bob Becking, and Pieter Willem van der Horst, eds. Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1999.p. 238
^Wright, A. T. (2016). The Demonology of 1 Enoch and the New Testament Gospels. Enoch and the Synoptic Gospels: Reminiscences, Allusions, Intertextuality, 216.
^Brown, Peter. Sorcery, Demons, and the Rise of Christianity from Late Antiquity into the Middle Ages. New York, NY, 1970. p. 28
^Brown, Peter. Sorcery, Demons, and the Rise of Christianity from Late Antiquity into the Middle Ages. New York, NY, 1970. p. 24
^Brown, Peter. Sorcery, Demons, and the Rise of Christianity from Late Antiquity into the Middle Ages. New York, NY, 1970. p. 31-32
^Brown, Peter. Sorcery, Demons, and the Rise of Christianity from Late Antiquity into the Middle Ages. New York, NY, 1970. p. 35
^Scribner, Robert W. "The Reformation, popular magic, and the" Disenchantment of the World"." The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 23.3 (1993): 480-481.
^abcdScribner, Robert W. "The Reformation, popular magic, and the" Disenchantment of the World"." The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 23.3 (1993): 481.
^Cameron, Malcolm L. "Anglo-Saxon medicine and magic." Anglo-Saxon England 17 (1988): 214.
^Brown, Peter. Sorcery, Demons, and the Rise of Christianity from Late Antiquity into the Middle Ages. New York, NY, 1970. p. 24
^Mack, C. K., Mack, D. (1998). A Field Guide to Demons, Fairies, Fallen Angels, and Other Subversive Spirits. USA: Arcade Pub. p. xxiii
^abWilde, J. F. E. (1888). Ancient Legends, mystic Charms, and Superstitions of Ireland: With Sketches of the Irish Past. To which is Appended a Chaper on "The Ancient Race of Ireland". USA: Ticknor and Company. p. 89
^Oldridge, Darren. "Fairies and the Devil in early modern England." The Seventeenth Century 31.1 (2016): 1-15.
^Bakr, Sarmad Mohammad. "The Structural Level in the Sufi Poetry."
^Weinstock, Jeffrey Andrew. The Ashgate encyclopedia of literary and cinematic monsters. Routledge, 2016. chapter: Div
^abAbedinifard, Mostafa; Azadibougar, Omid; Vafa, Amirhossein, eds. (2021).Persian Literature as World Literature. Literatures as World Literature. USA: Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 40–43.ISBN978-1501354205,ISBN9781501354205
^abcThe Good, the Bad and the Beautiful: The Survival of Ancient Iranian Ethical Concepts in Persian Popular Narratives of the Islamic Period p. 24
^Friedl, E. (2020). Religion and Daily Life in the Mountains of Iran: Theology, Saints, People. Vereinigtes Königreich: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 86
^abcdeSinai, Nicolai. "Key terms of the Qur'an: a critical dictionary." (2023): 1-840.
^ÇAKIN, Mehmet Burak. "SÜLEYMÂN-NÂME'DE MİTOLOJİK BİR UNSUR OLARAK DÎVLER." Turkish Studies-Language and Literature 14.3 (2019): 1137-1158.
^Zhanar, Abdibek, et al. "The Problems of the Mythological Personages in the Ancient Turkic Literature." Asian Social Science 11.7 (2015): 341.
^Orthmann, Eva; Kollatz, Anna (2019-11-11).The Ceremonial of Audience: Transcultural approaches. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. p. 155.ISBN978-3-847-00887-3.
^Pedram Khosronejad The People of the Air Healing and Spirit Possession in South of Iran in: Shamanism and Healing Rituals in Contemporary Islam and Sufism, T.Zarcone (ed.) 2011, I.B.Tauris
^Brend, Barbara. "Figurative Art in Medieval Islam and the Riddle of Bihzād of Herāt (1465–1535). By Michael Barry. pp. 408. Paris, Flammarion, 2004." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 17.1 (2007): 64-68. pp. 361-363
^Davaran, Fereshteh. Continuity in Iranian identity: Resilience of a cultural heritage. Routledge, 2010. pp. 207-208
^abSaif, Liana (2015).The Arabic influences on early modern occult philosophy. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
^abMaggi, A. (2001). Satan's Rhetoric: A Study of Renaissance Demonology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 14-15
^abGoodare, Julian. "Between humans and angels: Scientific uses for fairies in early modern Scotland." Fairies, Demons, and Nature Spirits: 'Small Gods' at the Margins of Christendom (2018): 175.
^Goodare, Julian. "Between humans and angels: Scientific uses for fairies in early modern Scotland." Fairies, Demons, and Nature Spirits: 'Small Gods' at the Margins of Christendom (2018): 180.
^Goodare, Julian. "Between humans and angels: Scientific uses for fairies in early modern Scotland." Fairies, Demons, and Nature Spirits: 'Small Gods' at the Margins of Christendom (2018): 181.
^Goodare, Julian. "Between humans and angels: Scientific uses for fairies in early modern Scotland." Fairies, Demons, and Nature Spirits: 'Small Gods' at the Margins of Christendom (2018): 186-187.
^Goodare, Julian. "Between humans and angels: Scientific uses for fairies in early modern Scotland." Fairies, Demons, and Nature Spirits: 'Small Gods' at the Margins of Christendom (2018): 174.
^Mebane, John S. Renaissance magic and the return of the Golden Age: the occult tradition and Marlowe, Jonson, and Shakespeare. U of Nebraska Press, 1992. p. 2
^Mebane, John S. Renaissance magic and the return of the Golden Age: the occult tradition and Marlowe, Jonson, and Shakespeare. U of Nebraska Press, 1992. p. 3
^abcdRehmann, Luzia Sutter (2023).Dämonen und unreine Geister: Die Evangelien, gelesen auf dem Hintergrund von Krieg, Vertreibung und Trauma (in German). Gütersloher Verlagshaus.ISBN978-3641292973.
^abMircea EliadeEncyclopedia of Religion Macmillan Publishing (1986) p. 287
^Josephson-Storm, Jason Ānanda. "The superstition, secularism, and religion trinary: Or re-theorizing secularism." Method & Theory in the Study of Religion 30.1 (2018): 13.
^Josephson-Storm, Jason Ānanda (2018). "The superstition, secularism, and religion trinary: Or re-theorizing secularism".Method & Theory in the Study of Religion.30 (1):1–20.doi:10.1163/15700682-12341409.
^abAl-Saadi, Qais Mughashghash; Al-Saadi, Hamed Mughashghash (2019). "Glossary".Ginza Rabba: The Great Treasure. An equivalent translation of the Mandaean Holy Book (2 ed.). Drabsha.
^R. van den Broek, Wouter J. HanegraaffGnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern TimesSUNY Press, 1998ISBN978-0-7914-3611-0 p. 37
^Yarshater, EhsanThe Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3 (2), The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1983.
^"Manichaeism". New Advent Encyclopedia.Archived from the original on 12 March 2007. Retrieved4 October 2013.
^abMartin, Dale Basil. "When Did Angels Become Demons?"Journal of Biblical Literature, vol. 129, no. 4, 2010, pp. 657.doi:10.2307/25765960. Accessed 5 Jan 2025.
^Joad RaymondMilton's Angels: The Early-Modern Imagination OUP Oxford 2010ISBN978-0-19-956050-9 p. 77
^Heinz Schreckenberg, Kurt Schubert,Jewish Historiography and Iconography in Early and Medieval Christianity (Van Gorcum, 1992,ISBN978-90-232-2653-6), p. 253
^David L BradnickEvil, Spirits, and Possession: An Emergentist Theology of the Demonic Brill 2017ISBN978-90-04-35061-8 p. 42
^Martin, Dale Basil. "When Did Angels Become Demons?"Journal of Biblical Literature, vol. 129, no. 4, 2010, pp. 657–77. JSTOR,https://doi.org/10.2307/25765960. Accessed 5 Jan. 2025.
^David L BradnickEvil, Spirits, and Possession: An Emergentist Theology of the Demonic Brill 2017ISBN978-90-04-35061-8 p. 39
^abAnne Marie Kitz. "Demons in the Hebrew Bible and the Ancient Near East".Journal of Biblical Literature, vol. 135, no. 3, 2016, pp. 447–464.JSTOR10.15699/jbl.1353.2016.3074. Accessed 16 May 2021.
^H. A. Kelly (30 January 2004).The Devil, Demonology, and Witchcraft: Christian Beliefs in Evil Spirits. Wipf and Stock Publishers.ISBN9781592445318. p. 104
^Demons and the Devil in Ancient and Medieval Christianity. 2011. Netherlands: Brill. p. 104
^Annette Yoshiko Reed (2005).Fallen Angels and the History of Judaism and Christianity: The Reception of Enochic Literature. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0521853781. p. 149
^Charles MathewesUnderstanding Religious Ethics John Wiley & SonsISBN978-1-405-13351-7. p. 249
^Reynolds, Gabriel Said, "Angels", in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE, Edited by: Kate Fleet, Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas, Everett Rowson. Consulted online on 17 August 2021.doi:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_23204. First published online: 2009. First print edition: 9789004181304, 2009, 2009-3
^Zeitlin, I. M. (2007).The Historical Muhammad. United Kingdom: Wiley.ISBN978-0-745-63998-7.
^Rassool, G. Hussein (2015-07-16).Islamic Counselling: An Introduction to theory and practice. Routledge. p. 58.ISBN978-1-31744-125-0.
^abIslam, Migration and Jinn: Spiritual Medicine in Muslim Health Management. (2021). Deutschland: Springer International Publishing.
^St Andrews Encyclopaedia of TheologyAngels (malāʾika)Stephen Burgep. 18
^St Andrews Encyclopaedia of TheologyAngels (malāʾika)Stephen Burgep. 14-15
^abMircea EliadeEncyclopedia of Religion Macmillan Publishing (1986) p. 286-287
^abcNünlist, Tobias (2015).Dämonenglaube im Islam [Demonic Belief in Islam] (in German). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG.ISBN978-3-110-33168-4.
^Egdunas Racius ISLAMIC EXEGESIS ON THE JINN: THEIR ORIGIN, KINDS AND SUBSTANCE AND THEIR RELATION TO OTHER BEINGS pp. 132–135
^Huart, Cl.; Massé, H. (2012) [1960-2007]. "Dīw". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.)
^Mommersteeg, Geert. "'He Has Smitten Her to the Heart with Love' The Fabrication of an Islamic Love-Amulet in West Africa." Anthropos, vol. 83, no. 4/6, 1988, pp. 501–510. JSTOR,http://www.jstor.org/stable/40463380. Accessed 13 June 2020.
^Carboni, Stefano (2013). "TheBook of Surprises (Kitab al-Buhlan) of the Bodleian Library".The La Trobe Journal.91:27–28.
^Plomley, N. J. B. (1991). The Westlake papers: records of interviews in Tasmania by Ernest Westlake. Queen Victoria Museum & Art Gallery.
^Plomley, N. J. B., ed. (2008) [First published 1966]. Friendly Mission: The Tasmanian Journals and Papers of George Augustus Robinson (2nd ed.). Hobart, Tasmania and Launceston, Tasmania: Quintus and Queen Victoria Museum and Art Gallery. ISBN 978-0-977-55722-6.
^Strassberg, Richard E.A Chinese Bestiary: Strange Creatures in the Guideway through the Mountains and Seas. p. 42.
^Strassberg, Richard E.A Chinese Bestiary: Strange Creatures from the Guideways through the Mountains and Seas. p. 201.
^abDe Groot (1907). "2, On Spectres of Mounts and Forests".Religious System of China, Volume 5. pp. 495–496.
^De Groot (1907). "4, On Ground-Demons".Religious System of China, Volume 5. pp. 535–536.
^De Groot (1907). "3, On Water-Demons".Religious System of China, Volume 5. pp. 521–522.
^De Groot (1907). "5, on Animal-Demons".Religious System of China, Volume 5. pp. 576–599.
^De Groot (1907). "5, on Animal-Demons".Religious System of China, Volume 5. p. 544.
^De Groot (1907). "5, on Animal Demons".Religious System of China, Volume 5. pp. 563–565.
^De Groot (1907). "5, on Animal Demons".Religious System of China, Volume 5. pp. 626–633.
^De Groot.The Religious System of China: Volume 5. p. 469.
^De Groot.The Religious System of China, Volume 5. p. 814.
^abDe Groot.The Religious System of China, Volume 5. p. 466.
^Dore, Henry SJ.Researches into Chinese Superstitions. pp. 241, 277.
^abO'Flaherty, W. D., Doniger, W. (1988). The Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology. Indien: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 65-95
^Asian Mythologies. (1993). Vereinigtes Königreich: University of Chicago Press. p. 52
^abcdMircea Eliade Encyclopedia of Religion Macmillan Publishing (1986) p. 284
^Dein, Simon, and Abdool Samad Illaiee. "Jinn and mental health: looking at jinn possession in modern psychiatric practice." The Psychiatrist 37.9 (2013): 290-293.
^Rosen, L. (2008). Varieties of Muslim Experience: Encounters with Arab Political and Cultural Life. Ukraine: University of Chicago Press.
Angelini, Anna (2021). "Les dieux des autres: entre «démons» et «idoles»".L'imaginaire du démoniaque dans la Septante: Une analyse comparée de la notion de "démon" dans la Septante et dans la Bible Hébraïque. Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism (in French). Vol. 197.Leiden andBoston:Brill Publishers. pp. 184–224.doi:10.1163/9789004468474_008.ISBN978-90-04-46847-4.
Bhayro, Siam; Rider, Catherine (2017).Demons and Illness from Antiquity to the Early-Modern Period. Brill.ISBN978-9-004-33854-8.
Black, Jeremy; Green, Anthony (1992).Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary. Austin: University of Texas Press.ISBN0714117056.
Boyce, Mary (1987).Zoroastrianism: A Shadowy but Powerful Presence in the Judaeo-Christian World. London: William's Trust.
Brandon, S. G. F., ed. (1970).A Dictionary of Comparative Religion. Charles Scribner's Sons.ISBN978-0297000440.
Brown, Peter (1970). "Sorcery, Demons, and the Rise of Christianity from Late Antiquity into the Middle Age". In Douglas, Mary (ed.).Witchcraft Confessions and Accusations. Tavistock Publications.ISBN978-0422732000.
Dennis, Geoffrey W. (2016).The Encyclopedia of Jewish Myth, Magic and Mysticism (2nd ed.). Llewellyn Worldwide.ISBN978-0-738-74814-6.
Drury, Neville; Hume, Lynne (2013).The Varieties of Magical Experience: Indigenous, Medieval, and Modern Magic. Bloomsbury Academic.ISBN978-1440804182.
Duchesne-Guillemin, Jacques (1988). "Zoroastrianism".Encyclopedia Americana. Vol. 29. Danbury: Grolier. pp. 813–815.
Greenbaum, Dorian Gieseler (2015).The Daimon in Hellenistic Astrology: Origins and Influence. Brill.ISBN978-9004306219.
Hanneken Henoch, T. R. (2006).Angels and Demons in the Book of Jubilees and Contemporary Apocalypses.[full citation needed]
Hirsch, Emil G.; Gottheil, Richard; Kohler, Kaufmann; Broydé, Isaac (1906)."Demonology".Jewish Encyclopedia.Archived from the original on 2014-11-07. Retrieved2014-10-29.
Taylor, Pinchas (2020).A Jewish Guide to the Mysterious. Torah Lab Publishers.ISBN978-1946351890.
VanderKam, James C. (1999). "The Angel Story in The Book Of Jubilees". In Chazon, Esther G.; Stone, Michael E. (eds.).Pseudepigraphic Perspectives: The Apocrypha And Pseudepigrapha In Light Of The Dead Sea Scrolls. Leiden: Brill. pp. 151–170.
Wundt, W. (1906).Mythus und Religion, Teil II (Völkerpsychologie, Band II). Leipzig.
García Martínez, Florentino (1994).The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated: The Qumran Texts in English. Leiden: E. J. Brill.ISBN978-90-04-10088-6.
García Martínez, Florentino (2002). "Magic in the Dead Sea Scrolls". In Bremmer, Jan N.; Veenstra, Jan R. (eds.).The Metamorphosis of Magic from Late Antiquity to the Early Modern Period. Leuven: Peeters.ISBN978-90-429-1227-4.
George, Andrew (1999)."Glossary of Proper Nouns".The Epic of Gilgamesh: The Babylonian Epic Poem and Other Texts in Akkadian and Sumerian. London, New York City, Melbourne, Toronto, New Delhi, Auckland, and Rosebank, South Africa: Penguin Books.ISBN978-0-14-044919-8.
Plaut, W. Gunther (2005).The Torah: A Modern Commentary. Union for Reform Judaism.
Vermes, Geza (2011).The complete Dead Sea scrolls in English. London: Penguin.[ISBN missing]
Walton, John H.; Walton, J. Harvey (2019).Demons and Spirits in Biblical Theology: Reading the Biblical Text in its Cultural and Literary Context. Cascade Books.ISBN978-1625648259.
.png)
.jpg)
