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Demographics of China

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the demographics of the People's Republic of China. For the demographics of the Republic of China (Taiwan), seeDemographics of Taiwan.

Demographics ofChina
PopulationDecrease 1,408,280,000 (31 December 2024)[1]
Growth rateDecrease −0.15% (2023 est.) (159th)
Birth rateIncrease 6.77 births per 1,000 (2024 est.)[2]
Death rate7.87 deaths per 1,000 (2023 est.)
Life expectancyIncrease 78.6 years (2022)
 • maleIncrease 76.0 years (2022)
 • femaleIncrease 81.3 years (2022)
Fertility rateIncrease 1.15 children per woman (2024 est.)[3]
Infant mortality rate6.76 deaths per 1000 live births (2022)[4]
Age structure
0–14 years16.48% (male 124,166,174/female 108,729,429)
15–64 years69.4% (male 504,637,819/female 476,146,909)
65 and over14.11% (male 92,426,805/female 107,035,710) (2023 est.)[5]
Sex ratio
Total1.04 male to female (2024 est.)[5]
At birth1.09 male to female (2024 est.)[5]
Under 151.14 male to female (2024 est.)[5]
15–64 years1.06 male to female (2024 est.)[5]
65 and over0.86 male to female (2024 est.)[5]
Nationality
Major ethnicNeutral decreaseHan Chinese (91.11%)[6]
Minor ethnic
Language
OfficialStandard Chinese
SpokenVarious; SeeLanguages of China

ThePeople's Republic of China is the secondmost-populous country in the world with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, only surpassed byIndia.

China's population has a relatively small youth component, partially a result of the strict enforcement of China'sone-child policy that was in effect from 1979 until 2015, which limited urban families to one child and rural families to two. As of 2022[update], Chinesestate media reported the country'stotal fertility rate to be 1.09, one of the lowest in the world alongsideSouth Korea,Taiwan,Hong Kong andSingapore.[7]

China was the world'smost populous country from at least 1950[8] until being surpassed byIndia in 2023.[9][10]

By one estimate, in 2024 China's population stood at about 1.408 billion, down from the 1.412 billion recorded in the 2020 census.[11] According to the2020 census, 91.11% of the population wasHan Chinese, and 8.89% wereminorities. China's population growth rate is -0.10%.[12][13] China conducted itssixth national population census in 2010,[14][15] and itsseventh census was completed in late 2020, with data released in May 2021.[16]

China faces the challenge of an aging population due to increased life expectancy and declining birth rates.[17] This demographic shift has implications for social services and the labor force.[17]

Population

[edit]

Historical population

[edit]
Main article:Population history of China
Historical population in China from 400 BC[18]
Historical population of India and China since 1100 withprojection to 2100 (Outdated, early 2022 projections)

During 1960–2015, the population grew to nearly 1.4 billion. UnderMao Zedong, China nearly doubled in population from 540 million in 1949 to 969 million in 1979. This growth slowed because of the one-child policy instituted in 1979.[18] The 2022 data shows a declining population for the first time since 1961.[19]

China's population reached 1 billion in 1982, making it the first country to reach this milestone.[20]

Censuses in China

[edit]
Main article:Census in China

The People's Republic of China conducted censuses in1953,1964,1982,1990,2000,2010, and2020. In 1987, the government announced that the fourth national census would take place in 1990 and that there would be one every ten years thereafter. The 1982 census (which reported a total population of 1,008,180,738) is generally accepted as significantly more reliable, accurate, and thorough than the previous two.[21] Various international organizations eagerly assisted the Chinese in conducting the 1982 census, including theUnited Nations Fund for Population Activities, which donated US$100.0 million between 1980 and 1989 for a variety of projects, one of which being the 1982 census.[22]

China was the world's most populous nation until being surpassed by India in 2023.[23]

By the seventh census in 2020, the total population had reached to 1,419,933,142, with the mainland having 1,411,778,724, Hong Kong having 7,474,200, and Macau having 683,218. However, this number is disputed byobstetrics researcherYi Fuxian, who argues that data related to population growth is inflated by local governments to obtain financial subsidies from the central government.[24]

Population density and distribution

[edit]
Population density in the year 2000
General topographic map of the most populous part of China, as per 2024 (Click to enlarge)

China is the second most populous country in the world and its national population density (137/km2) is very similar tothose of countries likeDenmark (excluding Greenland) or theCzech Republic. However, the overall population density of China contains major regional variations. In 2002, about 94% of the population lived east of theHeihe–Tengchong Line; although this eastern area comprises only 43% of China's total land area, its population density, at roughly 280/km2, is comparable to that of Japan.[25]

Broadly speaking, the population concentrates east of theTibetan Plateau and south of thenorthern steppe. The most densely populated areas included theYangtze River Valley (of which the delta region was the most populous),Sichuan Basin,North China Plain,Pearl River Delta, and the industrial area around the city ofShenyang in the northeast.[26]

Population is most sparse in the mountainous, desert, and grassland regions of the northwest and southwest. In theInner Mongolia Autonomous Region, portions are completely uninhabited, and only a few sections have populations denser than ten people per km2. The Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, andTibet autonomous regions andQinghai andGansu comprise 55% of the country's land area but in 1985 contained only 5.7% of its population.

Area (km2)PopulationDensity
China9,650,000 (100%)1,411,778,724 (100%)134.7/km2
5 provinces5,246,400 (54.45%)84,493,388 (5.98%)15.16/km2
Inner Mongolia1,183,000 (12.28% )24,049,155 (1.70%)20.33/km2
Xinjiang1,660,000 (17.23%)25,852,345 (1.83%)12.62/km2
Tibet1,228,400 (12.75%)3,648,100 (0.26%)2.31/km2
Qinghai721,000 (7.48%)5,923,957 (0.42%)7.65/km2
Gansu454,000 (4.71%)25,019,831 (1.77%)57.65/km2
Other provinces4,403,605 (45.55%)1,327,285,336 (94.02%)277.27/km2
Source: National Bureau of Statistics
Population of China by province 1953–2020[27][28]
Province or
autonomous region		Census 1953Census 1964Census 1982Census 1990Census 2000Census 2010Census 2020
number%number%number%number%number%number%number%
Beijing Municipality3,768,1491.488,568,4951.239,230,6873.9211,819,4070.9513,820,0001.0919,612,3681.4621,893,0951.55
Hebei35,984,6446.1849,687,7816.5853,005,8765.2661,082,4395.3967,440,0005.3379,854,2025.3674,610,2355.28
Tianjin Municipality2,693,8310.467,764,1410.778,785,4020.7710,010,0000.7912,938,2240.9713,866,0090.98
Shanxi14,314,4852.4618,015,0672.5925,291,3892.5128,759,0142.5432,970,0002.6035,712,1112.6734,915,6162.47
Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region6,100,1041.0512,348,6381.7819,274,2791.9121,456,7981.8923,760,0001.8824,706,3211.8424,049,1551.70
Rehe(now defunct)5,160,8220.89
Liaoning18,545,1473.1826,946,2003.8835,721,6933.5439,459,6973.4842,380,0003.3543,746,3233.2742,591,4073.02
Jilin11,290,0731.9415,668,6632.2622,560,0532.2424,658,7212.1827,280,0002.1627,462,2972.0524,073,4531.71
Heilongjiang11,897,3092.0420,118,2712.9032,665,5463.2435,214,8733.1139,890,0002.9138,312,2242.8631,850,0882.26
Shanghai Municipality6,204,4171.0610,816,4581.5611,859,7481.1813,341,8961.1816,740,0001.3223,019,1481.7224,870,8951.76
Jiangsu41,252,1927.0844,504,6086.4160,521,1146.0067,056,5195.9174,380,0005.8877,659,9035.8784,748,0166.00
Zhejiang22,865,7473.9228,318,5734.0838,884,6033.8641,445,9303.6646,770,0003.6954,426,8914.0664,567,5884.57
Anhui30,343,6375.2131,241,6574.5049,665,7244.9356,180,8134.9659,860,0004.7359,500,5104.4461,027,1714.32
Fujian13,142,7212.2616,757,2232.4125,931,1062.5730,097,2742.6534,710,0002.7436,894,2162.7541,540,0862.94
Jiangxi16,772,8652.8821,068,0193.0333,184,8273.2937,710,2813.3341,400,0003.2744,567,4753.3345,188,6353.20
Shandong48,876,5488.3955,519,0387.9974,419,0547.3884,392,8277.4490,790,0007.1795,793,0657.15101,527,4537.19
Henan44,214,5947.5950,325,5117.2574,422,7397.3885,509,5357.5492,560,0007.3194,023,5677.0299,365,5197.04
Hubei27,789,6934.7733,709,3444.8547,804,1504.7453,969,2104.7660,280,0004.7657,237,7404.2757,752,5574.09
Hunan33,226,9545.7037,182,2865.3554,008,8515.3660,659,7545.3564,440,0005.0965,683,7224.9066,444,8644.71
Guangdong34,770,0595.9742,800,8496.1659,299,2205.8862,829,2365.5486,420,0006.83104,303,1327.79126,012,5108.93
Hainan7,870,0000.628,671,5180.6510,081,2320.71
Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region19,560,8223.3620,845,0173.0036,420,9603.6142,245,7653.7344,890,0003.5546,026,6293.5550,126,8043.55
Sichuan62,303,99910.6967,956,4909.7899,713,3109.89107,218,1739.4683,290,0006.5880,418,2006.0083,674,8665.93
Chongqing Municipality[note 1]30,900,0002.4428,846,1702.1532,054,1592.27
Guizhou15,037,3102.5817,140,5212.4728,552,9972.8332,391,0662.8635,250,0002.7834,746,4682.5938,562,1482.73
Yunnan17,472,7373.0020,509,5252.9532,553,8173.2336,972,6103.2642,880,0003.3945,966,2393.4347,209,2773.34
Tibet Autonomous Region1,273,9690.221,251,2250.181,892,3930.192,196,0100.192,620,0000.213,002,1660.223,648,1000.26
Xikang(now defunct)3,381,0640.58
Shaanxi15,881,2812.7320,766,9152.9928,904,4232.8732,882,4032.9036,050,0002.8537,327,3782.7939,528,9992.80
Gansu12,093,6002.0612,630,5691.8219,569,2611.9422,371,1411.9725,620,0002.0225,575,2541.9125,019,8311.77
Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region1,506,2000.262,107,5000.303,895,5780.394,655,4510.415,620,0000.446,301,3500.477,202,6540.51
Qinghai1,676,5340.292,145,6040.313,895,7060.394,456,9460.395,180,0000.415,626,7220.425,923,9570.42
Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region4,873,6080.847,270,0671.0513,081,6811.3015,155,7781.3419,250,0001.5221,813,3341.6325,852,3451.83
Military personnel4,238,2103,199,1002,500,0002,300,0002,000,000
Population with permanent residence difficult to define4,649,985
Total China582,603,417694,581,7591,008,175,2881,133,682,5011,265,830,0001,339,724,8521,411,778,724

Structure of the population

[edit]

Census population of China by age and sex:

  • China population pyramid as of 1st National Census day on June 30, 1953
    China population pyramid as of 1st National Census day on June 30, 1953
  • China population pyramid as of 2nd National Census day on July 1, 1964
    China population pyramid as of 2nd National Census day on July 1, 1964
  • China population pyramid as of 3rd National Census day on July 1, 1982
    China population pyramid as of 3rd National Census day on July 1, 1982
  • China population pyramid as of 4th National Census day on July 1, 1990
    China population pyramid as of 4th National Census day on July 1, 1990
  • China population pyramid as of 5th National Census day on November 1, 2000
    China population pyramid as of 5th National Census day on November 1, 2000
  • China population pyramid as of 6th National Census day on November 1, 2010
    China population pyramid as of 6th National Census day on November 1, 2010
  • China population pyramid as of 7th National Census day on November 1, 2020
    China population pyramid as of 7th National Census day on November 1, 2020
  • China population pyramid as projected of 8th National Census day on November 1, 2030, in scenario of constant TFR at 2021 level and continued improvements in mortality
    China population pyramid as projected of 8th National Census day on November 1, 2030, in scenario of constant TFR at 2021 level and continued improvements in mortality
Population pyramid of China from 1950 to 2022
Age structure projections for China up to 2100

Population by Sex and Age Group (as of November 01, 2010). For statistical purposes, the data for China do not include those forHong Kong andMacau. Data exclude 2.3 million servicemen, 4.65 million persons with permanent resident status difficult to define, and 0.12 per cent undercount based on the post enumeration survey:[29]

Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal%
Total682,329,104650,481,7651,332,810,869
100%
0–441,062,56634,470,04475,532,610
5.67%
5–938,464,66532,416,88470,881,549
5.32%
10–1440,267,27734,641,18574,908,462
5.62%
15–1951,904,83047,984,28499,889,114
7.49%
20–2464,008,57363,403,945127,412,518
9.56%
25–2950,837,03850,176,814101,013,852
7.58%
30–3449,521,82247,616,38197,138,203
7.29%
35–3960,391,10457,634,855118,025,959
8.86%
40–4463,608,67861,145,286124,753,964
9.36%
45–4953,776,41851,818,135105,594,553
7.92%
50–5440,363,23438,389,93778,753,171
5.91%
55–5941,082,93840,229,53681,312,474
6.10%
60–6429,834,42628,832,85658,667,282
4.40%
65–6920,748,47120,364,81141,113,282
3.08%
70–7416,403,45316,568,94432,972,397
2.47%
75–7911,278,85912,573,27423,852,133
1.79%
80–845,917,5027,455,69613,373,198
1.00%
85–892,199,8103,432,1185,631,928
0.42%
90–94530,8721,047,4351,578,307
0.12%
95–99117,716252,263369,979
0.03%
100+8,85227,08235,934
<0.01%
Age groupMaleFemaleTotalPercent
0–14119,794,508101,528,113221,322,621
16.61%
15–64505,329,061487,232,029992,561,090
74.47%
65+57,205,53561,721,623118,927,158
8.92%
millionyear4006008001000120014001600195019601970198019902000201020202030population (million)China Population
Viewsource data.
‰years-10010203040195019601970198019902000201020202030natural change (per 1000)China Population Change
Viewsource data.

Urbanization

[edit]
Urban construction work inGuangshui, 2013
Main article:Urbanization in China

Urbanization increased in speed following the initiation of the reform and opening policy. By the end of 2024, 67% of the total population lived in urban areas, a rate that rose from 26% in 1990.[30]

Population policies

[edit]
See also:One-child policy andTwo-child policy
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Birth rate in China

Initially, China's post-1949 leaders were ideologically disposed to view a large population as an asset. But soon afterwards, the leaders changed course. For one year, starting in August 1956, vigorous support was given to the Ministry of Public Health's massbirth control efforts. These efforts, however, had little impact on fertility. After the interval of theGreat Leap Forward, Chinese leaders again saw rapid population growth as an obstacle to development, and their interest in birth control revived. In the early 1960s, schemes somewhat more muted than during the first campaign, emphasized the virtues of late marriage. Birth control offices were set up in the central government and some provincial-level governments in 1964. The second campaign was particularly successful in the cities, where the birth rate was cut in half during the 1963–66 period.[citation needed]

The one-child policy enjoyed much greater success in urban than in rural areas. Even without state intervention, there were compelling reasons for urban couples to limit the family to a single child. Raising a child required a significant portion of family income, and in the cities a child did not become an economic asset until he or she entered the work force at age sixteen. Couples with only one child were given preferential treatment in housing allocation. In addition, because city dwellers who were employed in state enterprises received pensions after retirement, the sex of their first child was less important to them than it was to those in rural areas.[31]

Observers suggested that an accurate assessment of the one-child program would not be possible until all women who came of childbearing age in the early 1980s passed their fertile years. As of 1987 the one-child program had achieved mixed results. In general, it was very successful in almost all urban areas but less successful in rural areas.[32]

Rapid fertility reduction associated with the one-child policy has potentially negative results. For instance, in the future the elderly might not be able to rely on their children to care for them as they have in the past, leaving the state to assume the expense, which could be considerable. Based on United Nations and Chinese government statistics, it was estimated in 1987 that by 2000 the population 60 years and older (the retirement age is 60 in urban areas) would number 127 million, or 10.1% of the total population; the projection for 2025 was 234 million elderly, or 16.4%. According to projections based on the 1982 census, if the one-child policy were maintained to the year 2000, 25% of China's population would be age 65 or older by 2040. In 2050, the number of people over 60 is expected to increase to 430 million.[33] Even though China has already opened two-child policy since 2016, data shows that the second-child policy cannot stop the problem of an aging population. China needs to find an appropriate birth policy to optimize the demographic dividend, which refers to the proportion of labor-age population.[34] On the other hand, higher house prices plays an important role on the influence of marriage and fertility. The increasing house prices leads to lower marriage rates and cause other serious social problems in China.[35]

In 2024,United Nations researchers forecast China's population to fall to 639 million by 2100.[36] The same year, researchers fromVictoria University and theShanghai Academy of Social Sciences forecast that China's population will fall to approximately 525 million by 2100 at current rates.[37][36] This revision, reducing the population estimate to 525 million from a previous forecast of 597 million by 2100, indicates a sharper decline than previously anticipated.[37]

Pro-natalist policies

[edit]

In the 2020s, pro-natalist policies have been put in place to encourage people to have more children.[38] Specific policies have included lengthening of paid maternity leave, cash payments to mothers in some regions who have their second and third children,[39][40] government-provided children's clothing and toys, increased child allowances, reduced taxes, government-subsidized fertility and pregnancy treatment, and new childcare facilities.[41]: 163  Local government family-planning committees, previously used to enforce the one-child policy, are deployed for pro-natalist policies such as calling women to check on theirmenstrual cycle.[42][40][43]

In July 2025, China announced an annual childcare subsidy of 3,600 yuan (about $500) until age three; this subsidy is estimated to impact about 20 million families.[44][45]

Vital statistics

[edit]
China population changes 1949 - 2022

Total fertility rate from 1930 to 1949

[edit]

These are estimates as there are no registry data for that period. Sources:Our World In Data andGapminder Foundation.[46]

Years19301931193219331934193519361937193819391940[46]
Total fertility rate in China5.55.475.455.435.45.385.355.325.35.285.25
Years194119421943194419451946194719481949[46]
Total fertility rate in China5.155.064.964.864.7755.24.915.54

Births and deaths as of 1949

[edit]

Notable events in demography of China:

Midyear populationLive births1Deaths1Natural change1Crude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Crude migration rate (per 1000)Total fertility rate
1949537,371,00019,345,00010,747,0008,598,00036.020.016.0
1950546,815,00020,232,0009,843,00010,389,00037.018.019.0-1.45.29
1951557,480,00021,073,0009,923,00011,150,00037.817.820.0-0.5
1952568,910,00021,050,0009,671,00011,379,00037.017.020.00.5
1953581,390,00021,511,0008,139,00013,372,00037.014.023.0-1.1
1954595,310,00022,604,0007,846,00014,758,00037.9713.1824.79-0.8
1955608,655,00019,842,0007,474,00012,368,00032.6012.2820.322.15.98
1956621,465,00019,825,0007,085,00012,740,00031.9011.4020.500.5
1957637,405,00021,691,0006,884,00014,807,00034.0310.8023.232.4
1958653,235,00019,088,0007,826,00011,262,00029.2211.9817.247.6
1959666,005,00016,504,0009,717,0006,787,00024.7814.5910.199.4
1960667,070,00013,915,00016,964,000−3,049,00020.8625.43−4.576.23.99
1961660,330,00011,899,0009,403,0002,496,00018.0214.243.78-13.93.37
1962665,770,00024,640,0006,671,00017,969,00037.0110.0226.99-18.8
1963682,335,00029,593,0006,851,00022,742,00043.3710.0433.33-8.46.88
1964698,355,00027,334,0008,031,00019,303,00039.1411.5027.64-4.2
1965715,185,00027,091,0006,794,00020,297,00037.889.5028.38-4.36.02
1966735,400,00025,776,0006,494,00019,282,00035.058.8326.222.0
1967754,550,00025,625,0006,361,00019,264,00033.968.4325.530.5
1968774,510,00027,565,0006,359,00021,206,00035.598.2127.38-0.9
1969796,025,00027,152,0006,392,00020,760,00034.118.0326.081.7
1970818,315,00027,356,0006,219,00021,137,00033.437.6025.832.25.75
1971841,105,00025,780,0006,157,00019,623,00030.657.3223.334.5
1972862,030,00025,663,0006,560,00019,103,00029.777.6122.162.7
1973881,940,00024,633,0006,209,00018,424,00027.937.0420.892.2
1974900,350,00022,347,0006,609,00015,738,00024.827.3417.483.4
1975916,395,00021,086,0006,708,00014,378,00023.017.3215.692.13.58
1976930,685,00018,530,0006,747,00011,783,00019.917.2512.662.9
1977943,455,00017,860,0006,482,00011,378,00018.936.8712.061.7
1978956,165,00017,450,0005,976,00011,474,00018.256.2512.001.5
1979969,005,00017,268,0006,018,00011,250,00018.216.2111.871.6
1980981,235,00017,868,0006,221,00011,647,00018.216.3411.870.82.32
1981993,885,00020,782,0006,321,00014,461,00020.916.3614.55-1.7
19821,008,630,00021,260,0006,653,00014,607,00022.286.6015.68-0.8
19831,023,310,00018,996,0007,223,00011,773,00020.196.9013.291.3
19841,036,825,00018,022,0006,890,00011,132,00019.906.8213.080.1
19851,051,040,00021,994,0007,087,00014,907,00021.046.7814.26-0.52.65
19861,066,790,00023,928,0007,318,00016,610,00022.436.8615.57-0.6
19871,084,035,00025,291,0007,285,00018,006,00023.336.7216.61-0.4
19881,101,630,00024,643,0007,315,00017,328,00022.376.6415.730.5
19891,118,650,00024,140,0007,316,00016,824,00021.586.5415.040.4
19901,135,185,00023,910,0007,570,00016,340,00021.066.6714.390.42.43
19911,150,780,00022,650,0007,710,00014,940,00019.686.7012.980.8
19921,164,970,00021,250,0007,740,00013,510,00018.246.6411.600.7
19931,178,440,00021,320,0007,820,00013,500,00018.096.6411.450.1
19941,191,835,00021,100,0007,740,00013,360,00017.706.4911.210.2
19951,204,855,00020,630,0007,920,00012,710,00017.126.5710.550.41.68
19961,217,550,00020,670,0007,990,00012,680,00016.986.5610.420.1
19971,230,075,00020,380,0008,010,00012,370,00016.576.5110.060.2
19981,241,935,00019,420,0008,070,00011,350,00015.646.509.140.5
19991,252,735,00018,340,0008,090,00010,250,00014.646.468.180.5
20001,262,645,00017,710,0008,140,0009,570,00014.036.457.580.31.45
20011,271,850,00017,020,0008,180,0008,840,00013.386.436.950.3
20021,280,400,00016,470,0008,210,0008,260,00012.866.416.450.3
20031,288,400,00015,990,0008,250,0007,740,00012.416.406.010.2
20041,296,075,00015,930,0008,320,0007,610,00012.296.425.870.1
20051,303,720,00016,170,0008,490,0007,680,00012.406.515.8901.51
20061,311,020,00015,850,0008,930,0006,920,00012.096.815.280.31.50
20071,317,885,00015,940,0009,130,0006,810,00012.106.935.170.11.53
20081,324,655,00016,080,0009,350,0006,730,00012.147.065.080.11.55
20091,331,260,00015,910,0009,430,0006,480,00011.957.084.870.11.54
20101,337,705,00015,920,0009,510,0006,410,00011.907.114.790.11.54
20111,345,035,00017,970,0009,600,0008,370,00013.277.146.13-0.7
20121,354,190,00019,730,0009,660,00010,070,00014.577.137.43-0.6
20131,363,240,00017,760,0009,720,0008,040,00013.037.135.90.8
20141,371,860,00018,970,0009,770,0009,200,00013.837.126.71-0.4
20151,379,860,00016,550,0009,750,0006,800,00011.997.074.930.91.57
20161,387,790,00017,860,0009,770,0008,090,00012.957.095.86-0.11.70
20171,396,215,00017,230,0009,860,0007,370,00012.647.065.580.51.67
20181,402,760,00015,230,0009,930,0005,300,00010.867.083.780.91.55
20191,407,745,00014,650,0009,980,0004,670,00010.417.093.320.21.50
20201,411,100,00012,020,0009,970,0002,050,0008.527.071.450.91.28
20211,412,360,00010,620,00010,140,000480,0007.527.180.340.61.16
2022[7]1,411,750,0009,560,00010,410,000−850,0006.777.37−0.600.21.09
2023[47]1,409,670,0009,020,00011,100,000−2,080,0006.397.87−1.480.01.07
2024[48]1,408,280,0009,540,00010,930,000−1,390,0006.777.76−0.990.01.15
2025
TFRyears1234567195019601970198019902000201020202030total fertility rateTotal Fertility Rate
Viewsource data.

Total fertility rate by region

[edit]

According to the 2000 census, theTFR was 1.22 (0.86 for cities, 1.08 for towns and 1.43 for villages/outposts). Beijing had the lowestTFR at 0.67, whileGuizhou had the highest at 2.19. TheXiangyang district ofJiamusi city (Heilongjiang) has a TFR of 0.41, which is the lowest TFR recorded anywhere in the world in recorded history. Other extremely low TFR counties are: 0.43 in theHeping district ofTianjin city (Tianjin), and 0.46 in theMawei district ofFuzhou city (Fujian). At the other end TFR was 3.96 inGeji County (Tibet), 4.07 inJiali County (Tibet), and 5.47 inBaqing County (Tibet).[49]

The 2010 census reported a TFR of 1.18 (0.88 in cities, 1.15 in townships, and 1.44 in rural areas).[50]The five regions with the lowest fertility rates were Beijing (0.71), Shanghai(0.74),Liaoning (0.74),Heilongjiang (0.75), andJilin (0.76). The five regions with the highest fertility rates wereGuangxi (1.79),Guizhou (1.75),Xinjiang (1.53),Hainan (1.51), andAnhui(1.48).[50]

The 2020 census reported a TFR of 1.301, with 1.118 in cities, 1.395 in townships, and 1.543 in rural areas.[51]The shift of fertility rate recorded in 2020 census compared to that in the previous 2 censuses may not be an actual recovery, but rather due to the low quality and massive underreporting of lower-age groups in the 2000 and 2010 censuses, while thepopulation control policy in China back then may also give families an incentive to hide their children, which is largely relieved as the policy changed in 2010s. This can be demonstrated by the much lower number of population aged 0~4 and 5~9 in the 2000 and 2010 censuses[52][53] when compared to the corresponding age groups in 2020.[54]

Total fertility rate by ethnic group (2010 census):Han (1.14),Zhuang (1.59),Hui (1.48),Manchu (1.18),Uyghur (2.04),Miao (1.82),Yi (1.82),Tujia (1.74),Tibetan (1.60),Mongols (1.26).[55]

Life expectancy

[edit]
See also:List of Chinese administrative divisions by life expectancy
Map of Chinese regions by life expectancy in 2019[56]
Life expectancy in China since 1960 by gender

Source:UN World Population Prospects[57]

PeriodLife expectancy in
Years		PeriodLife expectancy in
Years
1950–195543.81985–199068.9
1955–196044.51990–199569.7
1960–196544.61995–200070.9
1965–197055.52000–200573.1
1970–197561.72005–201074.7
1975–198065.52010–201575.7
1980–198567.82023[58]78.6

Fertility and mortality

[edit]
Traffic in Beijing
See also:Aging of China
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Beginning in the early 1950s,mortality steadily declined; it continued to decline through 1978 and remained relatively constant through 1987. One major fluctuation was reported in a computer reconstruction of China's population trends from 1953 to 1987 produced by theUnited States Bureau of the Census. The computer model showed that the crude death rate increased dramatically during the famine years associated with theGreat Leap Forward (1958–60).[59]

China exhibits a seriousgender imbalance. Census data obtained in 2000 revealed that 119 boys were born for every 100 girls, and among China's "floating population" the ratio was as high as 128:100. These situations led the government in July 2004 to ban selective abortions of female fetuses. It is estimated[by whom?] that this imbalance will rise until 2025–2030 to reach 20% then slowly decrease.[60]

In the 2020s, cash incentives have been offered to increase birth rates.[61][62] Local government family-planning committees, previously used to enforce the one-child policy, are deployed for pro-natalist policies such as calling women to check on theirmenstrual cycle.[63][62][64]

Censorship of data

[edit]

Although theNational Bureau of Statistics of China reported 9.02 million births in 2023,[11] the state-ownedMother and Infant Daily newspaper reported there were 7.88 million births for the same year.[65] The report was promptlycensored following publication.[65]

Labor force

[edit]

In 2012, for the first time, according to theNational Bureau of Statistics in January 2013, the number of people theoretically able to enter the Chinese labor force (individuals aged 15 to 59), shrank slightly to 937.27 million, a decrease of 3.45 million from 2011. This trend, resulting from ademographic transition, is anticipated to continue until at least 2030.[66]TheWorld Factbook estimated the 2019 active labor force was 774.71 million.[67]

Height and weight

[edit]

As of 2020, the average Chinese man was 169.7 centimeters (5 feet 6.8 inches) tall in 2019, the figures showed, and women's average height was 158 centimeters (5 ft 2 in). The same study showed an average Chinese man weighed 69.6 kilograms (153 lb; 10 st 13 lb), up 3.4 kilograms (7.5 lb) over 10 years, while women were 1.7 kilograms (3.7 lb) heavier on average at 59 kilograms (130 lb; 9 st 4 lb). They were up 1.2 and 0.8 centimeters (0.47 and 0.31 in) respectively from 5 years earlier.[68]

Gender balance

[edit]

Future challenges for China will be the gender disparity. According to the2020 census, males account for 51.24% of China's 1.41 billion people, while females made up 48.76% of the total. The sex ratio (the number of males for each female in a population) at birth was 118.06 boys to every 100 girls (54.14%) in2010, higher than the 116.86 (53.89%) of 2000, but 0.53 points lower than the ratio of 118.59 (54.25%) in 2005.[69]

Ethnic groups

[edit]
For a more comprehensive list, seeList of ethnic groups in China.

The People's Republic of China (PRC) officially recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, the largest of which areHan, who constitute 91.51% of the total population in 2010. Ethnic minorities constitute 8.49% or 113.8 million of China's population in 2010. During the past decades ethnic minorities have experienced higher growth rates than the majorityHan population, because they are not under the one-child policy. Their proportion of the population in China has grown from 6.1% in 1953, to 8.04% in 1990, 8.41% in 2000, and 8.49% in 2010. Large ethnic minorities (data according to the 2000 census) include theZhuang (16 million, 1.28%),Manchu (10 million, 0.84%),Uyghur (9 million, 0.78%),Hui (9 million, 0.71%),Miao (8 million, 0.71%),Yi (7 million, 0.61%),Tujia (5.75 million, 0.63%),Mongols (5 million, 0.46%),Tibetan (5 million, 0.43%),Buyei (3 million, 0.23%), andKorean (2 million, 0.15%). Over 126,000 Westerners fromCanada, theUS andEurope are living in mainland China.[70]

Population of China according to ethnic group in censuses 1953–2020[27]
Ethnic groupLanguage family1953%1964%1982%1990%2000%2010[71]%2020[6][72]%
HanSino-Tibetan547,283,05793.94651,296,36894.22936,703,82493.301,039,187,54891.921,137,386,11291.531,220,844,52091.601,286,310,00091.11
Minority groups35,320,3606.0639,883,9095.7867,233,2546.6790,570,7438.01105,225,1738.47111,966,3498.40125,470,0008.89
ZhuangTai–Kadai6,611,4551.138,386,1401.2113,441,9001.3215,555,8201.3816,178,8111.2816,926,3811.2719,568,5461.39
UyghursTurkic3,640,1250.623,996,3110.585,917,0300.597,207,0240.648,399,3930.6610,069,3460.7611,774,5380.84
HuiSino-Tibetan3,559,3500.614,473,1470.647,207,7800.718,612,0010.769,816,8020.7810,586,0870.7911,377,9140.81
MiaoHmong–Mien2,511,3390.432,782,0880.405,017,2600.507,383,6220.658,940,1160.719,426,0070.7111,067,9290.79
ManchuTungusic2,418,9310.422,695,6750.394,299,9500.439,846,7760.8710,682,2630.8410,387,9580.7810,423,3030.74
YiSino-Tibetan3,254,2690.563,380,9600.495,492,3300.546,578,5240.587,762,2860.618,714,3930.659,830,3270.70
TujiaSino-Tibetan284,9000.035,725,0490.518,028,1330.638,353,9120.639,587,7320.68
TibetansSino-Tibetan2,775,6220.482,501,1740.363,821,9500.384,593,0720.415,416,0210.436,282,1870.477,060,7310.50
MongolsMongolic1,462,9560.251,965,7660.283,402,2000.344,802,4070.425,813,9470.465,981,8400.456,290,2040.45
BuyeiTai–Kadai1,247,8830.211,348,0550.192,103,1500.212,548,2940.222,971,4600.232,870,0340.223,576,7520.25
DongTai–Kadai7128028361231,446,1900.142,508,6240.222,960,2930.242,879,9740.223,495,9930.25
YaoHmong–Mien6659338572651,414,8700.142,137,0330.192,637,4210.212,796,0030.213,309,3410.23
BaiSino-Tibetan5671197066231,147,3600.111,598,0520.141,858,0630.151,933,5100.152,091,5430.15
HaniSino-Tibetan4812206287271,063,3000.111,254,8000.111,439,6730.121,660,9320.121,733,1660.12
KoreanKoreanic1,120,4050.191,339,5690.191,783,1500.181,923,3610.171,923,8420.151,830,9290.141,702,4790.12
LiTai–Kadai360950438813882,0300.091,112,4980.101,247,8140.101,463,0640.111,602,1040.11
KazakhTurkic509375491637878,5700.091,110,7580.101,250,4580.101,462,5880.111,562,5180.11
DaiTai–Kadai478966535389864,3400.091,025,4020.091,158,9890.091,261,3110.091,329,9850.09
SheHmong–Mien234167379,0800.04634,7000.06709,5920.06708,6510.05
LisuSino-Tibetan317465270628466,7600.05574,5890.05634,9120.05702,8390.05
GelaoTai–Kadai2685259,8100.01438,1920.04579,3570.05550,7460.04
DongxiangMongolic155761147443279523–373,6690.03513,8050.04621,5000.05
GaoshanAustronesian3293661,7500.002,8770.004,4610.004,0090.00
LahuSino-Tibetan139060191241320,3500.03411,5450.04453,7050.04485,9660.04
SuiTai–Kadai133566156099300,6900.03347,1160.03406,9020.03411,8470.03
VaMon–Khmer286158200272271,0500.03351,9800.03396,6100.03429,7090.03
NakhiSino-Tibetan143453156796248,6500.02277,7500.02308,8390.02326,2950.02
QiangSino-Tibetan3566049105109,7600.01198,3030.02306,0720.02309,5760.02
TuMongolic5327777349148,7600.01192,5680.02241,1980.02289,5650.02
MulaoTai–Kadai5281991,7900.01160,6480.01207,3520.02216,2570.02
XibeTungusic190223343877,5600.01172,9320.02188,8240.02190,4810.01
KyrgyzTurkic7094470151108,7900.01143,5370.01160,8230.01186,7080.01
DaurMongolic6339494126–121,4630.01132,1430.01131,9920.01
JingpoSino-Tibetan10185257762100,1800.01119,2760.01132,1430.01147,8280.01
MaonanTai–Kadai2238237,4500.0072,3700.01107,1060.01101,1920.01
SalarTurkic306586913568,0300.0182,3980.01104,5030.01130,6070.01
BlangMon–Khmer3941158473–87,5460.0191,8820.01119,6390.01
TajikIndo-European144621623627,4300.0033,2230.0041,0280.0051,0690.00
AchangSino-Tibetan1203231,4900.0027,7180.0033,9360.0039,5550.00
PumiSino-Tibetan1429818,8600.0029,7210.0033,6000.0042,8610.00
EwenkiTungusic4957968119,4400.0026,3790.0030,5050.0030,8750.00
NuSino-Tibetan1504725,9800.0027,1900.0028,7590.0037,5230.00
Gin (Vietnamese)Mon–Khmer12,1400.0018,7490.0022,5170.0028,1990.00
JinoSino-Tibetan11,2600.0018,0220.0020,8990.0023,1430.00
De'angMon–Khmer––15,4610.0017,9350.0020,5560.00
BonanMongolic495751256,6200.0011,6830.0016,5050.0020,0740.00
RussianIndo-European2265613262,8300.0013,5000.0015,6090.0015,3930.00
YugurTurkic386157177,6700.0012,2930.0013,7190.0014,3780.00
UzbekTurkic13626771713,8100.0014,7630.0013,3700.0010,5690.00
MonbaSino-Tibetan38091,0400.007,4980.008,9230.0010,5610.00
OroqenTungusic226227092,2800.007,0040.008,1960.008,6590.00
DerungSino-Tibetan4,2500.005,8250.007,4260.006,9300.00
Chinese TatarsTurkic692922947,5100.005,0640.004,8900.003,5560.00
HezhenTungusic7186700.004,2540.004,6400.005,3540.00
LhobaSino-Tibetan1,0300.002,3220.002,9650.003,6820.00
Unrecognized3,370,8800.333,4980.00734,3790.06640,1010.05
Unknown4,7200.00752,3470.07––––
Naturalized––––9410.001,4480.00
Total China582,603,417694,581,7591,008,175,2881,133,682,5011,242,612,2261,332,810,8691,411,778,724

NeitherHong Kong norMacau recognizes the official ethnic classifications maintained by the central government. In Macau, the largest substantial ethnic groups of non-Chinese descent are theMacanese, of mixed Chinese and Portuguese descent (Eurasians), as well as migrants from thePhilippines andThailand. Overseas Filipinos (overwhelmingly female) working as domestic workers comprise the largest non-Han Chinese ethnic group in Hong Kong.[citation needed]

People from other immigration jurisdictions

[edit]

The 2020 Census counted 371,380 residents from Hong Kong, 55,732 residents fromMacau, 157,886 residents fromTaiwan, and 845,697 residents from other locations, totaling 1,430,695 residents.[74][75]

NationalityResidents
Myanmar351,248
Vietnam79,212
South Korea59,242
United States55,226
Japan36,838
Canada21,309
Australia13,777
Russia12,513
United Kingdom11,236
Nigeria10,654
Other countries234,600
TOTAL845,697

Religions

[edit]
Main article:Religion in China
Further information:Religion in Hong Kong andReligion in Macau
Religions in each province, major city and autonomous region of China, according to the latest available data[note 2]
ProvinceChinese
Folk Religion[76]		Buddhism[77]Christianity[77]Islam[78]
Fujian
31.31%
40.40%
3.97%
0.32%
Zhejiang
23.02%
23.99%
3.89%
<0.2%
Qinghai——
0.76%
[76]
17.51%
Guangdong
43.71%
5.18%
0.68%
<0.2%
Yunnan
32.22%
13.06%
0.68%
1.52%
Guizhou
31.18%
1.86%
0.49%
0.48%
Jiangsu
16.67%
14.17%
2.67%
<0.2%
Jiangxi
24.05%
7.96%
0.66%
<0.2%
Shandong
25.28%
2.90%
1.54%
0.55%
Chongqing
26.63%
0.85%
0.28%
<0.2%
Hunan
20.19%
2.44%
0.49%
<0.2%
Shanxi
15.61%
3.65%
1.55%
<0.2%
Henan
7.94%
5.52%
4.95%
1.05%
Jilin
7.73%
8.23%
3.26%
<0.2%
Anhui
4.64%
7.83%
4.32%
0.58%
Gansu
3.51%
6.85%
0.28%
6.64%
Heilongjiang
7.73%
4.39%
3.63%
0.35%
Shaanxi
7.58%
6.35%
1.66%
0.4%
Liaoning
7.73%
5.31%
1.99%
0.64%
Sichuan
10.6%
2.06%
0.30%
<0.2%
Hubei
6.5%
2.09%
1.71%
<0.2%
Hebei
5.52%
1.59%
1.13%
0.82%
Hainan——
0.48%
[76]
<0.2%
Beijing—
11.2%
[80]
0.78%
[76]
1.76%
Shanghai—
10.30%
1.88%
0.36%
Tianjin——
0.43%
<0.2%
Tibet—
~78%
[81]		—
0.39%
Xinjiang——
1.0%
[76]
57.99%
Guangxi
40.48%
10.23%
0.15%
<0.2%
Ningxia——
1.17%
[76]
33.99%
Inner Mongolia
2.36%
12.1%
[82]
2.0%
[76]
0.91%
China
16%
[83]
15%
[84][85]
2.5%
[84][85]
2%
[79]: 13 
Mapping of religions in China and Taiwan
Distribution of religious beliefs
Religions in five Chinese cities[A],Yao X. 2005[93]
Religion or belief%
Cults of gods and ancestors23.8%
Buddhism or worship of Buddha23.1%
Believe in fate and divination38.5%
Believe infeng shui27.1%
Believe in celestial powers26.7%
Are not members of religions51.8%
Are members of religions5.3%
Are convinced atheists32.9%
Religions in China, CSLS 2010[94]
ReligionNumber%
Cults of gods and ancestors754 million56.2%[B]
Buddhism185 million13.8%
Buddhist initiates17,3 million1.3%
Taoist folk religions173 million12.9%
Taoists12 million0.9%
Christianity33 million2.4%
—Protestantism30 million2.2%
—Catholicism3 million0.2%
Islam23 million1.7%
Religions in China, Horizon[95]
Religion200520062007
Buddhism11%16%12%
Taoism<1%<1%<1%
Islam1.2%0.7%2.9%
Christianity4%1%2%
—Catholicism2%<1%1%
—Protestantism2%1%1%
Other religion0.3%0.1%0.1%
None77%77%81%
Refused to answer7%5%5%
Religions in China, CGSS[96]: 13 
Religion2006200820102011Average
Buddhism7.4%7.0%5.5%5.0%6.2%
Taoism0.2%0.2%0.2%0.2%0.2%
Folk religious sects2.7%0.3%2.9%1.9%2.2%
Islam1.2%0.7%2.9%1.1%1.7%
Christianity2.1%2.2%2.1%2.6%2.3%
—Catholicism0.3%0.1%0.2%0.4%0.3%
—Protestantism1.8%2.1%1.9%2.2%2.0%
Other religion0.3%0.1%0.1%0.3%0.2%
Traditional worship or "not religious"86.1%89.5%86.3%88.9%87.2%
Demographic, political and socioeconomic characteristics of religious believers in six provinces,[C] Yu Tao—CCAP[D]—PU 2008[97]
Religious community% of population% maleAverage age in years% agricultural households% ethnic minority% married% Communist Party membersAverage education in yearsAnnual family income in yuan
Traditional folk religion31.0964.846.4696.41.194.69.85.9429.772
Buddhism10.8554.449.4495.80.092.19.85.8838.911
Protestantism3.5447.749.6689.24.696.94.65.8324.168
Taoism0.7164.350.5092.90.010021.46.2930.630
Catholicism0.3966.746.3391.78.391.78.37.5046.010
All religious46.5961.649.4596.21.293.89.65.9430.816
All non-religious53.4164.650.6296.35.593.315.06.4026.448
Religions by age group, CFPS 2012[96]: 17 
Religion<3030–4040–5050–6060+
Buddhism6.6%7.9%5.8%6.0%6.0%
Taoism0.3%0.4%0.2%0.4%0.4%
Islam0.3%0.8%0.5%0.8%0.4%
Christianity1.5%1.2%2.5%2.3%2.9%
—Catholicism0.3%0.1%0.6%0.3%0.3%
—Protestantism1.2%1.1%1.9%2.0%2.6%
Other religion0.2%0.5%0.7%0.4%0.7%
Traditional worship or "not religious"91.0%89.1%90.3%90.2%89.6%
Religious self-identification of university students inBeijing (2011)[98]
  1. Not religious or other (80.3%)
  2. Buddhism (7.00%)
  3. Confucianism (4.00%)
  4. Christianity (3.90%)
  5. Taoism (2.70%)
  6. Islam (2.10%)
Religious self-identification of participants of thecultural nationalist movement in the mainland (2011)[99]
  1. Confucianism (59.6%)
  2. Buddhism (26.3%)
  3. Taoism (4.10%)
  4. Christianity[E] (0.60%)
  5. Don't know (9.40%)
  1. ^Beijing,Shanghai,Nantong,Wuhan,Baoding.
  2. ^Although a lower 215 million, or 16% said they "believed in the existence" of ancestral spirits.
  3. ^The populations surveyed were those of the provinces ofJiangsu,Sichuan,Shaanxi,Jilin,Hebei andFujian.
  4. ^Center for Chinese Agricultural Policy
  5. ^Mostly Catholicism (0.6%), while nobody declared affiliation with Protestantism (0%).

Migration

[edit]
Main articles:Migration in China andChinese emigration

Internal migration in the People's Republic of China is one of the most extensive in the world according to theInternational Labour Organization.[100] In fact, research done by Kam Wing Chan of theUniversity of Washington suggests that "In the 30 years since 1979, China's urban population has grown by about 440 million to 622 million in 2009. Of the 440 million increase, about 340 million was attributable to net migration and urban reclassification. Even if only half of that increase was migration, the volume of rural-urban migration in such a short period is likely the largest in human history."[101] Migrants in China are commonly members of afloating population, which refers primarily to migrants in China without local household registration status through the ChineseHukou system.[102] In general, rural-urban migrant workers are most excluded from local educational resources, citywide social welfare programs and many jobs because of their lack of hukou status.[103]

In 2011 a total of 252.78 millionmigrant workers (an increase of 4.4% compared to 2010) existed in China. Out of these, migrant workers who left their hometown and worked in other provinces accounted for 158.63 million (an increase of 3.4% compared to 2010) and migrant workers who worked within their home provinces reached 94.15 million (an increase of 5.9% compared to 2010).[104] Estimations are that Chinese cities will face an influx of another 243 million migrants by 2025, taking the urban population up to nearly 1 billion people.[105] This population of migrants would represent "almost 40 percent of the total urban population," a number which is almost three times the current level.[105][106] While it is often difficult to collect accurate statistical data on migrant floating populations, the number of migrants is undoubtedly quite large. "In China's largest cities, for instance, it is often quoted that at least one out of every five persons is a migrant."[107] China's government influences the pattern of urbanization through theHukou permanent residence registration system, land-sale policies, infrastructure investment and the incentives offered to local government officials. The other factors influencing migration of people from rural provincial areas to large cities are employment, education, business opportunities and higher standard of living.[108]

The mass emigration known as the Chinese diaspora,[109] which occurred from the 19th century to 1949, was mainly caused by wars and starvation inmainland China, invasion from various foreign countries, as well as the problems resulting from political corruption. Most immigrants were illiterate peasants and manual labourers, called "coolies" by analogy to the same pattern of immigration from India, who emigrated to work in countries such as the Americas, Australia, South Africa and Southeast Asia.[citation needed]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^Part of Sichuan until 1997.
  2. ^The statistics for Chinese ancestorism, that is the worship of ancestor-gods within the lineage system, are from the Chinese Spiritual Life Survey of 2010.[76] The statistics for Buddhism and Christianity are from the China Family Panel Studies survey of 2012.[77] The statistics for Islam are from a survey conducted in 2010.[78] It is worthwhile to note that the populations of Chinese ancestorism and Buddhism may overlap, even with the large remaining parts of the population whose belief is not documented in the table. The latter, the uncharted population, may practise other forms of Chinese religion, such as the worship of gods, Taoism, Confucianism and folk salvationisms, or may be atheist. Indeed, according to the CFPS 2012, only 6.3% of the Chinese were irreligious in the sense of "atheism", while the rest practised the worship of gods and ancestors.[79]: 13 
  3. ^Chinese ancestral or lineage religion is the worship of kin's ancestor-gods in the system oflineage churches andancestral shrines. It is worthwhile to note that this does not include other forms of Chinese religion, such as the worship of national ancestral gods or the gods of nature (which in northern China is more common than ancestor worship), and Taoism and Confucianism.
  4. ^Historical record and contemporary scholarly fieldwork testify certain central and northern provinces of China as hotbeds of folk religious sects and Confucian religious groups.
  5. ^The map represents the geographic diffusion of the tradition of folk religious movements of salvation, Confucian churches andjiaohua ("transformative teachings") movements, based on historical data and contemporary fieldwork. Due to incomplete data and ambiguous identity of many of these traditions the map may not be completely accurate. Sources include aWorld Religion Map from Harvard University, based on data from the World Religion Database, showing highly unprecise ranges of Chinese folk (salvationist) religions' membership by province. Another source, the studies of China'sRegional Religious System, find "very high activity of popular religion and secret societies and low Buddhist presence in northern regions, while very high Buddhist presence in the southeast".[86][note 4]
    • Hebei: Fieldwork by Thomas David Dubois[87] testifies the dominance of folk religious movements, specifically the Church of the Heaven and the Earth and theChurch of the Highest Supreme, since their "energetic revival since the 1970s" (p. 13), in the religious life of the counties of Hebei. Religious life in rural Hebei is also characterised by a type of organisation called thebenevolent churches and the salvationist movement known asZailiism has returned active since the 1990s.
    • Henan: According to Heberer and Jakobi (2000)[88] Henan has been for centuries a hub of folk religious sects (p. 7) that constitute significant focuses of the religious life of the province. Sects present in the region include theBaguadao or Tianli ("Order of Heaven") sect, the Dadaohui, theTianxianmiaodao, theYiguandao, and many others. Henan also has a strong popular Confucian orientation (p. 5).
    • Northeast China: According to official records by the then-government, theUniversal Church of the Way and its Virtue or Morality Society had 8 million members inManchuria, or northeast China in the 1930s, making up about 25% of the total population of the area (note that the state of Manchuria also included the eastern end of modern-day Inner Mongolia).[89] Folk religious movements of a Confucian nature, or Confucian churches, were in fact very successful in the northeast.
    • Shandong: The province is traditionally a stronghold of Confucianism and is the area of origin of many folk religious sects and Confucian churches of the modern period, including the Universal Church of the Way and its Virtue, theWay of the Return to the One (皈依道Guīyīdào), theWay of Unity (一貫道Yīguàndào), and others. Alex Payette (2016) testifies the rapid growth of Confucian groups in the province in the 2010s.[90]
    According to the Chinese General Social Survey of 2012,[91] about 2.2% of the total population of China (around 30 million people) claims membership in the folk religious sects, which have likely maintained their historical dominance in central-northern and northeastern China.

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