Adeity orgod is asupernatural being considered to besacred and worthy ofworship due to having authority over some aspect of the universe and/or life.[1][2] TheOxford Dictionary of English definesdeity as a god orgoddess, or anything revered asdivine.[3]C. Scott Littleton defines a deity as "a being with powers greater than those of ordinary humans, but who interacts with humans, positively or negatively, in ways that carry humans to newlevels of consciousness, beyond the grounded preoccupations of ordinary life".[4]
Religions can be categorized by how many deities they worship.Monotheistic religions accept only one deity (predominantly referred to as "God"),[5][6] whereaspolytheistic religions accept multiple deities.[7]Henotheistic religions accept onesupreme deity without denying other deities, considering them as aspects of the same divine principle.[8][9]Nontheistic religions deny any supreme eternalcreator deity, but may accept apantheon of deities which live, die and may be reborn like any other being.[10]: 35–37 [11]: 357–358
Many cultures—including the ancientMesopotamians,Egyptians,Greeks,Romans, andGermanic peoples—have personifiednatural phenomena, variously as either deliberate causes or effects.[22][23][24] SomeAvestan andVedic deities were viewed as ethical concepts.[22][23] InIndian religions, deities have been envisioned as manifesting within the temple of every living being's body, as sensory organs and mind.[25][26][27] Deities are envisioned as a form of existence (Saṃsāra) afterrebirth, for human beings who gain merit through an ethical life, where they becomeguardian deities and live blissfully inheaven, but are also subject to death when their merit is lost.[10]: 35–38 [11]: 356–359
The English language worddeity derives fromOld Frenchdeité,[28][page needed] theLatindeitatem (nominativedeitas) or "divine nature", coined byAugustine of Hippo fromdeus ("god"). Deus is related through a commonProto-Indo-European (PIE) origin to*deiwos.[29] This root yields the ancient Indian wordDeva meaning "to gleam, a shining one", from *div- "to shine", as well asGreekdios "divine" andZeus; and Latindeus "god" (Old Latindeivos).[30][31][32]: 230–31 Deva is masculine, and the related feminine equivalent isdevi.[33]: 496 Etymologically, the cognates ofDevi are Latindea and Greekthea.[34] InOld Persian,daiva- means "demon, evil god",[31] while inSanskrit it means the opposite, referring to the "heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of high excellence, exalted, shining ones".[33]: 496 [35][36]
The closely linked term "god" refers to "supreme being, deity", according to Douglas Harper,[37] and is derived fromProto-Germanic*guthan, from PIE*ghut-, which means "that which is invoked".[32]: 230–231 Guth in theIrish language means "voice". The term*ghut- is also the source ofOld Church Slavoniczovo ("to call"), Sanskrithuta- ("invoked", an epithet ofIndra), from the root*gheu(e)- ("to call, invoke."),[37]
An alternate etymology for the term "god" comes from the Proto-GermanicGaut, which traces it to the PIE root*ghu-to- ("poured"), derived from the root*gheu- ("to pour, pour alibation"). The term*gheu- is also the source of the Greekkhein "to pour".[37] Originally the word "god" and its other Germanic cognates wereneuter nouns but shifted to being generally masculine under the influence of Christianity in which thegod is typically seen as male.[32]: 230–231 [37] In contrast, all ancientIndo-European cultures andmythologies recognized both masculine and feminine deities.[36]
Pantheists believe that the universe itself and everything in it forms a single, all-encompassing deity.[38][39]
There is no universally accepted consensus on what a deity is, and concepts of deities vary considerably across cultures.[18]: 69–74 [40]Huw Owen states that the term "deity or god or its equivalent in other languages" has a bewildering range of meanings and significance.[41]: vii–ix It has ranged from "infinite transcendent being who created and lords over the universe" (God), to a "finite entity or experience, with special significance or which evokes a special feeling" (god), to "a concept in religious or philosophical context that relates to nature or magnified beings or a supra-mundane realm", to "numerous other usages".[41]: vii–ix
A deity is typically conceptualized as a supernatural or divine concept, manifesting in ideas and knowledge, in a form that combines excellence in some or all aspects, wrestling with weakness and questions in other aspects,heroic in outlook and actions, yet tied up with emotions and desires.[42][43] In other cases, the deity is a principle or reality such as the idea of "soul". TheUpanishads of Hinduism, for example, characterizeAtman (soul, self) asdeva (deity), thereby asserting that thedeva and eternal supreme principle (Brahman) is part of every living creature, that this soul is spiritual and divine, and that to realize self-knowledge is to know the supreme.[44][45][46]
Theism is the belief in the existence of one or more deities.[47][48]Polytheism is the belief in and worship of multiple deities,[49] which are usually assembled into apantheon of gods andgoddesses, with accompanyingrituals.[49] In most polytheistic religions, the different gods and goddesses are representations of forces of nature orancestral principles, and can be viewed either as autonomous or as aspects oremanations of a creator God ortranscendentalabsolute principle (monistic theologies), which manifestsimmanently in nature.[49]Henotheism accepts the existence of more than one deity, but considers all deities as equivalent representations or aspects of the same divine principle, the highest.[9][50][8][51]Monolatry is the belief that many deities exist, but that only one of these deities may be validly worshipped.[52][53]
Deism is the belief that only one deity exists, who created the universe, but does not usually intervene in the resulting world.[64][65][66][page needed] Deism was particularly popular among western intellectuals during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.[67][68]Pantheism is the belief that the universe itself is God[38] or that everything composes an all-encompassing,immanent deity.[39]Pandeism is an intermediate position between these, proposing that the creator became a pantheistic universe.[69]Panentheism is the belief thatdivinity pervades the universe, but that it alsotranscends the universe.[70]Agnosticism is the position that it is impossible to know for certain whether a deity of any kind exists.[71][72][73]Atheism is the non-belief in the existence of any deity.[74]
Scholars infer the probable existence of deities in the prehistoric period from inscriptions and prehistoric arts such ascave drawings, but it is unclear what these sketches and paintings are and why they were made.[77] Some engravings or sketches show animals, hunters or rituals.[78] It was once common for archaeologists to interpret virtually every prehistoric female figurine as a representation of a single, primordial goddess, the ancestor of historically attested goddesses such asInanna,Ishtar,Astarte,Cybele, andAphrodite;[79] this approach has now generally been discredited.[79] Modern archaeologists now generally recognize that it is impossible to conclusively identify any prehistoric figurines as representations of any kind of deities, let alone goddesses.[79] Nonetheless, it is possible to evaluate ancient representations on a case-by-case basis and rate them on how likely they are to represent deities.[79] TheVenus of Willendorf, a female figurine found in Europe and dated to about 25,000 BCE has been interpreted by some as an exemplar of a prehistoric female deity.[78] A number of probable representations of deities have been discovered at'Ain Ghazal[79] and the works of art uncovered atÇatalhöyük reveal references to what is probably a complex mythology.[79]
Diverse African cultures developed theology and concepts of deities over their history. InNigeria and neighboringWest African countries, for example, two prominent deities (locally calledÒrìṣà)[80] are found in theYoruba religion, namely the godOgun and the goddessOsun.[80] Ogun is the primordial masculine deity as well as the archdivinity and guardian of occupations such as tools making and use, metal working, hunting, war, protection and ascertaining equity and justice.[81][82] Osun is an equally powerful primordial feminine deity and a multidimensional guardian of fertility, water, maternal, health, social relations, love and peace.[80] Ogun and Osun traditions were brought into the Americas onslave ships. They were preserved by the Africans in their plantation communities, and their festivals continue to be observed.[80][81]
InSouthern African cultures, a similar masculine-feminine deity combination has appeared in other forms, particularly as the Moon and Sun deities.[83] One Southern African cosmology consists ofHieseba orXuba (deity, god),Gaune (evil spirits) andKhuene (people). TheHieseba includesNladiba (male, creator sky god) andNladisara (females, Nladiba's two wives). The Sun (female) and the Moon (male) deities are viewed as offspring ofNladiba and twoNladisara. The Sun and Moon are viewed as manifestations of the supreme deity, and worship is timed and directed to them.[84] In other African cultures the Sun is seen as male, while the Moon is female, both symbols of the godhead.[85]: 199–120 InZimbabwe, the supreme deity isandrogynous with male-female aspects, envisioned as the giver of rain, treated simultaneously as the god of darkness and light and is calledMwari Shona.[85]: 89 In theLake Victoria region, the term for a deity isLubaale, or alternativelyJok.[86]
Egyptian tomb painting showing the godsOsiris,Anubis, andHorus, who are among the major deities in ancient Egyptian religion[87]
Ancient Egyptian culture revered numerous deities. Egyptian records and inscriptions list the names of many whose nature is unknown and make vague references to other unnamed deities.[88]: 73 EgyptologistJames P. Allen estimates that more than 1,400 deities are named in Egyptian texts,[89] whereas Christian Leitz offers an estimate of "thousands upon thousands" of Egyptian deities.[90]: 393–394 Their terms for deities werenṯr (god), and femininenṯrt (goddess);[91]: 42 however, these terms may also have applied to any being – spirits and deceased human beings, but not demons – who in some way were outside the sphere of everyday life.[92]: 216 [91]: 62 Egyptian deities typically had an associated cult, role and mythologies.[92]: 7–8, 83
Around 200 deities are prominent in thePyramid texts and ancient temples of Egypt, manyzoomorphic. Among these, wereMin (fertility god),Neith (creator goddess),Anubis,Atum,Bes,Horus,Isis,Ra,Meretseger,Nut,Osiris,Shu,Sia andThoth.[87]: 11–12 Most Egyptian deities represented natural phenomenon, physical objects or social aspects of life, as hidden immanent forces within these phenomena.[93][94] The deityShu, for example represented air; the goddessMeretseger represented parts of the earth, and the godSia represented the abstract powers of perception.[95]: 91, 147 Deities such asRa andOsiris were associated with the judgement of the dead and their care during the afterlife.[87]: 26–28 Major gods often had multiple roles and were involved in multiple phenomena.[95]: 85–86
The first written evidence of deities are from early 3rd millennium BCE, likely emerging from prehistoric beliefs.[96] However, deities became systematized and sophisticated after the formation of an Egyptian state under thePharaohs and their treatment assacred kings who had exclusive rights to interact with the gods, in the later part of the 3rd millennium BCE.[97][88]: 12–15 Through the early centuries of the common era, as Egyptians interacted and traded with neighboring cultures, foreign deities were adopted and venerated.[98][90]: 160
The ancientCanaanites were polytheists who believed in a pantheon of deities,[99][100][101] the chief of whom was the godEl, who ruled alongside his consortAsherah and theirseventy sons.[99]: 22–24 [100][101]Baal was the god of storm, rain, vegetation and fertility,[99]: 68–127 while his consortAnat was the goddess of war[99]: 131, 137–139 andAstarte, theWest Semitic equivalent toIshtar, was the goddess of love.[99]: 146–149 The people of theKingdoms of Israel andJudah originally believed in these deities,[99][101][102] alongside their ownnational god Yahweh.[103][104] El later becamesyncretized withYahweh, who took over El's role as the head of the pantheon,[99]: 13–17 with Asherah as his divine consort[105]: 45 [99]: 146 and the "sons of El" as his offspring.[99]: 22–24 During the later years of theKingdom of Judah, amonolatristic faction rose to power insisting that only Yahweh was fit to be worshipped by the people of Judah.[99]: 229–233 Monolatry became enforced during the reforms ofKing Josiah in 621 BCE.[99]: 229 Finally, during the national crisis of theBabylonian captivity, someJudahites began to teach that deities aside from Yahweh were not just unfit to be worshipped, but did not exist.[106][41]: 4 The "sons of El" were demoted from deities toangels.[99]: 22
AncientMesopotamian culture in southernIraq had numerousdingir (deities, gods and goddesses).[18]: 69–74 [40] Mesopotamian deities were almost exclusively anthropomorphic.[107]: 93 [18]: 69–74 [108] They were thought to possess extraordinary powers[107]: 93 and were often envisioned as being of tremendous physical size.[107]: 93 They were generally immortal,[107]: 93 but a few of them, particularlyDumuzid,Geshtinanna, andGugalanna were said to have either died or visited the underworld.[107]: 93 Both male and female deities were widely venerated.[107]: 93
In the Sumerian pantheon, deities had multiple functions, which included presiding over procreation, rains, irrigation, agriculture, destiny, and justice.[18]: 69–74 The gods were fed, clothed, entertained, and worshipped to prevent natural catastrophes as well as to prevent social chaos such as pillaging, rape, or atrocities.[18]: 69–74 [109]: 186 [107]: 93 Many of the Sumerian deities werepatron guardians ofcity-states.[109]
The Mesopotamian mythology of the first millennium BCE treatedAnšar (laterAššur) andKišar as primordial deities.[114]Marduk was a significant god among the Babylonians. He rose from an obscure deity of the third millennium BCE to become one of the most important deities in the Mesopotamian pantheon of the first millennium BCE. The Babylonians worshipped Marduk as creator of heaven, earth and humankind, and as theirnational god.[18]: 62, 73 [115] Marduk's iconography is zoomorphic and is most often found in Middle Eastern archaeological remains depicted as a "snake-dragon" or a "human-animal hybrid".[116][117][118]
InNorse mythology,Æsir (singularáss orǫ́ss) are the principal group of gods,[120] while the termásynjur (singularásynja) refers specifically to the femaleÆsir.[121] These terms, states John Lindow, may be ultimately rooted in the Indo-European root for "breath" (as in "life giving force"), and are cognate withOld English:os (aheathen god) andGothic:anses.[122]: 49–50
Another group of deities found in Norse mythology are termed asVanir, and are associated with fertility. TheÆsir and theVanirwent to war, according to the Nordic sources. The account inYnglinga saga describes the Æsir–Vanir War ending in truce and ultimate reconciliation of the two into a single group of gods, after both sides chose peace, exchanged ambassadors (hostages),[123]: 181 and intermarried.[122]: 52–53 [124]
The Norse mythology describes the cooperation after the war, as well as differences between theÆsir and theVanir which were considered scandalous by the other side.[123]: 181 The goddessFreyja of theVanir taught magic to theÆsir, while the two sides discover that whileÆsir forbidmating between siblings,Vanir accepted such mating.[123]: 181 [125][126]
Theancient Greeks revered both gods and goddesses.[128] These continued to be revered through the early centuries of the common era, and many of the Greek deities inspired and were adopted as part of much larger pantheon of Roman deities.[129]: 91–97 The Greek religion was polytheistic, but had no centralized church, nor any sacred texts.[129]: 91–97 The deities were largely associated with myths and they represented natural phenomena or aspects of human behavior.[128][129]: 91–97
Several Greek deities probably trace back to more ancient Indo-European traditions, since the gods and goddesses found in distant cultures are mythologically comparable and arecognates.[32]: 230–231 [130]: 15–19 Eos, the Greek goddess of the dawn, for instance, is cognate to IndicUshas, RomanAurora and LatvianAuseklis.[32]: 230–232 Zeus, the Greek king of gods, is cognate to LatinIūpiter, Old GermanZiu, and IndicDyaus, with whom he shares similar mythologies.[32]: 230–232 [131] Other deities, such asAphrodite, originated from theNear East.[132][133][134][135]
Besides the Olympians, the Greeks also worshipped various local deities.[130]: 170–181 [137] Among these were the goat-legged godPan (the guardian of shepherds and their flocks),Nymphs (nature spirits associated with particular landforms),Naiads (who dwelled in springs),Dryads (who were spirits of the trees),Nereids (who inhabited the sea), river gods,satyrs (a class of lustful male nature spirits), and others. The dark powers of the underworld were represented by theErinyes (or Furies), said to pursue those guilty of crimes against blood-relatives.[137]
The Greek deities, like those in many other Indo-European traditions, were anthropomorphic.Walter Burkert describes them as "persons, not abstractions, ideas or concepts".[130]: 182 They had fantastic abilities and powers; each had some unique expertise and, in some aspects, a specific and flawed personality.[138]: 52 They were not omnipotent and could be injured in some circumstances.[139] Greek deities led to cults, were used politically and inspiredvotive offerings for favors such as bountiful crops, healthy family, victory in war, or peace for a loved one recently deceased.[129]: 94–95 [140]
4th-centuryRoman sarcophagus depicting the creation of man byPrometheus, with major Roman deities Jupiter, Neptune, Mercury, Juno, Apollo, Vulcan watching
The Roman pantheon had numerous deities, both Greek and non-Greek.[129]: 96–97 The more famed deities, found in the mythologies and the 2nd millennium CE European arts, have been the anthropomorphic deities syncretized with the Greek deities. These include the six gods and six goddesses: Venus, Apollo, Mars, Diana, Minerva, Ceres, Vulcan, Juno, Mercury, Vesta, Neptune, Jupiter (Jove, Zeus); as well Bacchus, Pluto and Hercules.[129]: 96–97 [141] The non-Greek major deities include Janus, Fortuna, Vesta, Quirinus and Tellus (mother goddess, probably most ancient).[129]: 96–97 [142] Some of the non-Greek deities had likely origins in more ancient European culture such as the ancient Germanic religion, while others may have been borrowed, for political reasons, from neighboring trade centers such as those in theMinoan orancient Egyptian civilization.[143][144][145]
The Roman deities, in a manner similar to the ancient Greeks, inspired community festivals, rituals and sacrifices led byflamines (priests, pontifs), but priestesses (Vestal Virgins) were also held in high esteem for maintaining sacred fire used in the votive rituals for deities.[129]: 100–101 Deities were also maintained in home shrines (lararium), such as Hestia honored in homes as the goddess of fire hearth.[129]: 100–101 [146] This Roman religion held reverence for sacred fire, and this is also found in Hebrew culture (Leviticus 6), Vedic culture's Homa, ancient Greeks and other cultures.[146]
Ancient Roman scholars such as Varro and Cicero wrote treatises on the nature of gods of their times.[147] Varro stated, in hisAntiquitates Rerum Divinarum, that it is the superstitious man who fears the gods, while the truly religious person venerates them as parents.[147] Cicero, in hisAcademica, praised Varro for this and other insights.[147] According to Varro, there have been three accounts of deities in the Roman society: the mythical account created by poets for theatre and entertainment, the civil account used by people for veneration as well as by the city, and the natural account created by the philosophers.[148] The best state is, adds Varro, where the civil theology combines the poetic mythical account with the philosopher's.[148] The Roman deities continued to be revered in Europe through the era of Constantine, and past 313 CE when he issued the Edict of Toleration.[138]: 118–120
TheInca culture has believed inViracocha (also calledPachacutec) as thecreator deity.[149]: 27–30 [150]: 726–729 Viracocha has been an abstract deity to Inca culture, one who existed before he created space and time.[151] All other deities of the Inca people have corresponded to elements of nature.[149][150]: 726–729 Of these, the most important ones have beenInti (sun deity) responsible for agricultural prosperity and as the father of the first Inca king, andMama Qucha the goddess of the sea, lakes, rivers and waters.[149]Inti in some mythologies is the son ofViracocha andMama Qucha.[149][152]
Inca Sun deity festival
Oh creator and Sun and Thunder, be forever copious, do not make us old, let all things be at peace, multiply the people, and let there be food, and let all things be fruitful.
Inca people have revered many male and female deities. Among the feminine deities have beenMama Kuka (goddess of joy),Mama Ch'aska (goddess of dawn),Mama Allpa (goddess of harvest and earth, sometimes calledMama Pacha orPachamama),Mama Killa (moon goddess) andMama Sara (goddess of grain).[152][149]: 31–32 During and after the imposition of Christianity duringSpanish colonialism, the Inca people retained their original beliefs in deities throughsyncretism, where they overlay the Christian God and teachings over their original beliefs and practices.[154][155][156] The male deityInti became accepted as the Christian God, but the Andean rituals centered around Inca deities have been retained and continued thereafter into the modern era by the Inca people.[156][157]
InMaya culture,Kukulkan has been the supremecreator deity, also revered as the god ofreincarnation, water, fertility and wind.[150]: 797–798 The Maya people builtstep pyramid temples to honorKukulkan, aligning them to theSun's position on the springequinox.[150]: 843–844 Other deities found at Maya archaeological sites includeXib Chac—the benevolent male rain deity, andIxchel—the benevolent female earth, weaving and pregnancy goddess.[150]: 843–844 TheMaya calendar had 18 months, each with 20 days (and five unlucky days ofUayeb); each month had a presiding deity, who inspired social rituals, special trading markets and community festivals.[157]
A deity with aspects similar toKulkulkan in the Aztec culture has been calledQuetzalcoatl.[150]: 797–798 However, states Timothy Insoll, the Aztec ideas of deity remain poorly understood. What has been assumed is based on what was constructed byChristian missionaries. The deity concept was likely more complex than these historical records.[158] InAztec culture, there were hundred of deities, but many were henotheisticincarnations of one another (similar to theavatar concept of Hinduism). Unlike Hinduism and other cultures, Aztec deities were usually not anthropomorphic, and were instead zoomorphic or hybrid icons associated with spirits, natural phenomena or forces.[158][159] The Aztec deities were often represented through ceramic figurines, revered in home shrines.[158][160]
ThePolynesian people developed a theology centered on numerous deities, with clusters of islands having different names for the same idea. There are great deities found across the Pacific Ocean. Some deities are found widely, and there are many local deities whose worship is limited to one or a few islands or sometimes to isolated villages on the same island.[161]: 5–6
TheMāori people, of what is now New Zealand, called the supreme being asIo, who is also referred elsewhere asIho-Iho,Io-Mataaho,Io Nui,Te Io Ora,Io Matua Te Kora among other names.[162]: 239 TheIo deity has been revered as the original uncreated creator, with power of life, with nothing outside or beyond him.[162]: 239 Other deities in the Polynesian pantheon includeTangaloa (god who created men),[161]: 37–38 La'a Maomao (god of winds),Tu-Matauenga orKu (god of war),Tu-Metua (mother goddess),Kane (god of procreation) andRangi (sky god father).[162]: 261, 284, 399, 476
The Polynesian deities have been part of a sophisticated theology, addressing questions of creation, the nature of existence, guardians in daily lives as well as during wars, natural phenomena, good and evil spirits, priestly rituals, as well as linked to the journey of the souls of the dead.[161]: 6–14, 37–38, 113, 323
Christianity is a monotheistic religion in which most mainstream congregations and denominations accept the concept of the HolyTrinity.[163]: 233–234 Modern orthodox Christians believe that the Trinity is composed of three equal,cosubstantial persons:God the Father,God the Son, and theHoly Spirit.[163]: 233–234 The first person to describe the persons of the Trinity ashomooúsios (ὁμοούσιος; "of the same substance") was theChurch Father Origen.[164] Although most early Christian theologians (includingOrigen) wereSubordinationists,[165] who believed that the Father was superior to the Son and the Son superior to the Holy Spirit,[164][166][167] this belief was condemned as heretical by theFirst Council of Nicaea in the fourth century, which declared that all three persons of the Trinity are equal.[165] Christians regard the universe as an element in God's actualization[163]: 273 and the Holy Spirit is seen as the divine essence that is "the unity and relation of theFather and the Son".[163]: 273 According to George Hunsinger, the doctrine of the Trinity justifies worship in a Church, wherein Jesus Christ is deemed to be a full deity with theChristian cross as his icon.[163]: 296
The theological examination of Jesus Christ, of divine grace in incarnation, his non-transferability and completeness has been a historic topic. For example, theCouncil of Chalcedon in 451 CE declared that in "one person Jesus Christ, fullness of deity and fullness of humanity are united, the union of the natures being such that they can neither be divided nor confused".[168] Jesus Christ, according to theNew Testament, is the self-disclosure of the one, true God, both in his teaching and in his person; Christ, in Christian faith, is considered the incarnation of God.[41]: 4, 29 [169][170]
Ilah,ʾIlāh (Arabic:إله; plural:آلهةʾālihah), is anArabic word meaning "god".[171][172] It appears in the name of the monotheistic god of Islam asAllah (al-Lāh).[173][174][175] which literally means "the god" in Arabic.[171][172] Islam is strictly monotheistic[176] and the first statement of theshahada, or Muslim confession of faith, is that "there is noʾilāh (deity) but Allah (God)",[177] who is perfectly unified and utterly indivisible.[176][177][178]
The termAllah is used by Muslims for God. The Persian wordKhuda (Persian:خدا) can be translated as god, lord or king, and is also used today to refer toGod in Islam by Persian,Urdu,Tat andKurdish speakers. TheTurkic word for god isTengri; it exists asTanrı inTurkish.
The tetragrammaton inPhoenician (12th century BCE to 150 BCE),Paleo-Hebrew (10th century BCE to 135 CE), and squareHebrew (3rd century BCE to present) scripts
Judaism affirms the existence of one God (Yahweh, or YHWH), who is not abstract, but He who revealed himself throughout Jewish history particularly during the Exodus and the Exile.[41]: 4 Judaism reflects a monotheism that gradually arose, was affirmed with certainty in the sixth century "Second Isaiah", and has ever since been the axiomatic basis of its theology.[41]: 4
The classical presentation of Judaism has been as a monotheistic faith that rejected deities and related idolatry.[179] However, states Breslauer, modern scholarship suggests that idolatry was not absent in biblical faith, and it resurfaced multiple times in Jewish religious life.[179] The rabbinic texts and other secondary Jewish literature suggest worship of material objects and natural phenomena through the medieval era, while the core teachings of Judaism maintained monotheism.[179][180][page needed]
According to Aryeh Kaplan, God is always referred to as "He" in Judaism, "not to imply that the concept of sex or gender applies to God", but because "there is no neuter in the Hebrew language, and the Hebrew word for God is a masculine noun" as he "is an active rather than a passive creative force".[181]
InMandaeism,Hayyi Rabbi (lit=The Great Life), or 'The Great Living God',[182] is the supreme God from which all thingsemanate. He is also known as 'The First Life', since during the creation of the material world,Yushamin emanated from Hayyi Rabbi as the "Second Life."[183] "The principles of the Mandaean doctrine: the belief of the only one great God, Hayyi Rabbi, to whom all absolute properties belong; He created all the worlds, formed the soul through his power, and placed it by means of angels into the human body. So He createdAdam and Eve, the first man and woman."[184] Mandaeans recognize God to be the eternal, creator of all, the one and only in domination who has no partner.[185]
Anitism, composed of an array of indigenous religions from the Philippines, has multiple pantheons of deities. There are more than a hundred differentethnic groups in the Philippines, each having their own supreme deity or deities. Each supreme deity or deities normally rules over a pantheon of deities, contributing to the sheer diversity of deities in Anitism.[186]The supreme deity or deities of ethnic groups are almost always the most notable.[186]
For example,Bathala is the Tagalog supreme deity,[187] Mangechay is the Kapampangan supreme deity,[188]Malayari is the Sambal supreme deity,[189] Melu is the Blaan supreme deity,[190] Kaptan is the Bisaya supreme deity,[191] and so on.
Although Buddhists do not believe in acreator deity,[192] deities are an essential part of Buddhist teachings about cosmology,rebirth, andsaṃsāra.[192] Buddhist deities (such asdevas andbodhisattvas) are believed to reside in a pleasant, heavenly realm withinBuddhist cosmology, which is typically subdivided into twenty six sub-realms.[193][192][10]: 35
Devas are numerous, but they are still mortal;[193] they live in the heavenly realm, then die and are reborn like all other beings.[193] A rebirth in the heavenly realm is believed to be the result of leading an ethical life and accumulating very goodkarma.[193] Adeva does not need to work, and is able to enjoy in the heavenly realm all pleasures found on Earth. However, the pleasures of this realm lead to attachment (upādāna), lack of spiritual pursuits, and therefore nonirvana.[10]: 37 Nonetheless, according to Kevin Trainor, the vast majority of Buddhistlay people in countries practicingTheravada have historically pursued Buddhist rituals and practices because they are motivated by their potential rebirth into thedeva realm.[193][194][195] Thedeva realm in Buddhist practice in Southeast Asia and East Asia, states Keown, include gods found in Hindu traditions such asIndra andBrahma, and concepts inHindu cosmology such asMount Meru.[10]: 37–38
In the ancientVedic texts of Hinduism, a deity is often referred to asDeva (god) orDevi (goddess).[33]: 496 [35] The root of these terms mean "heavenly, divine, anything of excellence".[33]: 492 [35] Deva is masculine, and the related feminine equivalent isdevi. In the earliest Vedic literature, allsupernatural beings are calledAsuras.[198]: 5–11, 22, 99–102 [33]: 121 Over time, those with a benevolent nature become deities and are referred to asSura, Deva or Devi.[198]: 2–6 [199]
Devas or deities in Hindu texts differ from Greek or Romantheodicy, states Ray Billington, because many Hindu traditions believe that a human being has the potential to be reborn as adeva (ordevi), by living an ethical life and building up saintlykarma.[200] Such adeva enjoys heavenly bliss, till the merit runs out, and then thesoul is reborn again intoSaṃsāra. Thus deities are henotheistic manifestations, embodiments and consequence of the virtuous, the noble, the saint-like living in many Hindu traditions.[200]
Shinto ispolytheistic, involving the veneration of many deities known askami,[201] or sometimes asjingi.[202] In Japanese, no distinction is made here between singular and plural, and hence the termkami refers both to individualkami and the collective group ofkami.[203] Although lacking a direct English translation,[204] the termkami has sometimes been rendered as "god" or "spirit".[205] The historian of religionJoseph Kitagawa deemed these English translations "quite unsatisfactory and misleading",[206] and various scholars urge against translatingkami into English.[207] In Japanese, it is often said that there areeight millionkami, a term which connotes an infinite number,[208] and Shinto practitioners believe that they are present everywhere.[209] They are not regarded asomnipotent,omniscient, or necessarilyimmortal.[210]
Taoism is a polytheistic religion. The gods and immortals（神仙） believed in by Taoism can be roughly divided into two categories, namely "gods" and "xian" (immortals). Among them,"Gods" are also called deities and there are many kinds, that is, god of heaven（天神), god of ground（地祇), wuling（物灵: animism, the spirit of all things), god of netherworld（地府神灵), god of human body（人体之神), god of human ghost（人鬼之神）etc. Among these "gods" such as god of heaven（天神), god of ground（地祇), god of netherworld（阴府神灵), god of human body（人体之神） are innate beings.In China, "gods" are often referred to together with "xian". "Xian" (immortals) is acquired the cultivation of the Tao，persons with vast supernatural powers, unpredictable changes and immortality.[211]
Jainism does not believe in a creator, omnipotent, omniscient, eternal God; however, the cosmology of Jainism incorporates a meaningfulcausality-driven reality, including four realms of existence (gati), one of them beingdeva (celestial beings, gods).[11]: 351–357 A human being can choose and live an ethical life, such as being non-violent (ahimsa) against all living beings, and thereby gain merit and be reborn asdeva.[11]: 357–358 [212]
Jain texts reject a trans-cosmic God, one who stands outside of the universe and lords over it, but they state that the world is full ofdevas who are in human-image with sensory organs, with the power of reason, conscious, compassionate and with finite life.[11]: 356–357 Jainism believes in the existence of thesoul (Self,atman) and considers it to have "god-quality", whose knowledge and liberation is the ultimate spiritual goal in both religions. Jains also believe that the spiritual nobleness of perfected souls (Jina) anddevas make them worship-worthy beings, with powers of guardianship and guidance to betterkarma. In Jain temples or festivals, the Jinas and Devas are revered.[11]: 356–357 [213]
Ahura Mazda (/əˌhʊrəˌmæzdə/);[214] is theAvestan name for the creator and sole God ofZoroastrianism.[215] The literal meaning of the wordAhura is "mighty" or "lord" andMazda iswisdom.[215]Zoroaster, the founder of Zoroastrianism, taught that Ahura Mazda is the most powerful being in all of the existence[216] and the only deity who is worthy of the highest veneration.[216] Nonetheless, Ahura Mazda is not omnipotent because hisevil twin brotherAngra Mainyu is nearly as powerful as him.[216] Zoroaster taught that thedaevas were evil spirits created by Angra Mainyu to sow evil in the world[216] and that all people must choose between the goodness of Ahura Mazda and the evil of Angra Mainyu.[216] According to Zoroaster, Ahura Mazda will eventually defeat Angra Mainyu and good will triumph over evil once and for all.[216] Ahura Mazda was the most important deity in the ancientAchaemenid Empire.[217] He was originally represented anthropomorphically,[215] but, by the end of theSasanian Empire, Zoroastrianism had become fully aniconic.[215]
The Greek philosopherDemocritus argued that belief in deities arose when humans observed natural phenomena such aslightning and attributed such phenomena to supernatural beings.
Attempts to rationally explain belief in deities extend all the way back to ancient Greece.[130]: 311–317 The Greek philosopherDemocritus argued that the concept of deities arose when human beings observed natural phenomena such as lightning,solar eclipses, and the changing of the seasons.[130]: 311–317 Later, in the third century BCE, the scholarEuhemerus argued in his bookSacred History that the gods were originally flesh-and-blood mortal kings who wereposthumously deified, and that religion was therefore the continuation of these kings' mortal reigns, a view now known asEuhemerism.[218]Sigmund Freud suggested that God concepts are a projection of one's father.[219]
A tendency to believe in deities and other supernatural beings may be an integral part of the human consciousness.[220][221][222][223]: 2–11 Children are naturally inclined to believe in supernatural entities such as gods, spirits, and demons, even without being introduced into a particular religious tradition.[223]: 2–11 Humans have an overactive agency detection system,[220][224][223]: 25–27 which has a tendency to conclude that events are caused by intelligent entities, even if they really are not.[220][224] This is a system which may have evolved to cope with threats to the survival of human ancestors:[220] in the wild, a person who perceived intelligent and potentially dangerous beings everywhere was more likely to survive than a person who failed to perceive actual threats, such as wild animals or human enemies.[220][223]: 2–11 Humans are also inclined to think teleologically and ascribe meaning and significance to their surroundings, a trait which may lead people to believe in a creator-deity.[225] This may have developed as a side effect of human social intelligence, the ability to discern what other people are thinking.[225]
Stories of encounters with supernatural beings are especially likely to be retold, passed on, and embellished due to their descriptions of standard ontological categories (person, artifact, animal, plant, natural object) with counterintuitive properties (humans that are invisible, houses that remember what happened in them, etc.).[226] As belief in deities spread, humans may have attributed anthropomorphic thought processes to them,[227] leading to the idea of leaving offerings to the gods and praying to them for assistance,[227] ideas which are seen in all cultures around the world.[220]
Sociologists of religion have proposed that the personality and characteristics of deities may reflect a culture's sense of self-esteem and that a culture projects its revered values into deities and in spiritual terms. The cherished, desired or sought human personality is congruent with the personality it defines to be gods.[219] Lonely and fearful societies tend to invent wrathful, violent, submission-seeking deities, while happier and secure societies tend to invent loving, non-violent, compassionate deities.[219]Émile Durkheim states that gods represent an extension of human social life to include supernatural beings. According to Matt Rossano, God concepts may be a means of enforcingmorality and building more cooperative community groups.[228]
^Becking, Bob; Dijkstra, Meindert; Korpel, Marjo; Vriezen, Karel (2001).Only One God?: Monotheism in Ancient Israel and the Veneration of the Goddess Asherah. London: New York. p. 189.ISBN978-0-567-23212-0. Retrieved28 June 2017.The Christian tradition is, in imitation of Judaism, a monotheistic religion. This implies that believers accept the existence of only one God. Other deities either do not exist, are considered inferior, are seen as the product of human imagination, or are dismissed as remnants of a persistent paganism
^abTrigger, Bruce G. (2003).Understanding Early Civilizations: A Comparative Study (1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 441–42.ISBN978-0-521-82245-9.[Historically...] people perceived far fewer differences between themselves and the gods than the adherents of modern monotheistic religions. Deities were not thought to be omniscient or omnipotent and were rarely believed to be changeless or eternal
^abcMurdoch, John (1861).English Translations of Select Tracts, Published in India: With an Introd. Containing Lists of the Tracts in Each Language. Graves. pp. 141–42.We [monotheists] find by reason and revelation that God is omniscient, omnipotent, most holy, etc., but the Hindu deities possess none of those attributes. It is mentioned in theirShastras that their deities were all vanquished by the Asurs, while they fought in the heavens, and for fear of whom they left their abodes. This plainly shows that they are not omnipotent.
^Eakin, Frank Jr. (1971).The Religion and Culture of Israel. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. p. 70., Quote: "Monolatry: The recognition of the existence of many gods but the consistent worship of one deity".
^Cross, F.L.; Livingstone, E.A., eds. (1974). "Monotheism". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 ed.). Oxford:Oxford University Press.
^Wainwright, William (2013)."Monotheism".The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.Archived from the original on 7 April 2019. Retrieved22 January 2018.
^abBeck, Guy L. (2005).Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. 169, note 11.ISBN978-0-7914-6415-1.
^Williams, George M. (2008).Handbook of Hindu Mythology (Reprint ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 24–35.ISBN978-0-19-533261-2.
^Manuel, Frank Edward; Pailin, David A. (1999)."Deism".Encyclopedia Britannica.Archived from the original on 1 May 2015. Retrieved22 January 2018.In general, Deism refers to what can be called natural religion, the acceptance of a certain body of religious knowledge that is inborn in every person or that can be acquired by the use of reason and the rejection of religious knowledge when it is acquired through either revelation or the teaching of any church.
^Kohler, Kaufmann; Hirsch, Emil G. (1906)."DEISM".Jewish Encyclopedia.Archived from the original on 9 January 2018. Retrieved22 January 2018.DEISM: A system of belief which posits God's existence as the cause of all things, and admits His perfection, but rejects Divine revelation and government, proclaiming the all-sufficiency of natural laws.
^Kurian, George Thomas (2008).The Encyclopedia of Christian Civilization. Malden, MA: Blackwell.ISBN978-0-470-67060-6.Deism is a rationalistic, critical approach to theism with an emphasis on natural theology. The Deists attempted to reduce religion to what they regarded as its most foundational, rationally justifiable elements. Deism is not, strictly speaking, the teaching that God wound up the world like a watch and let it run on its own, though that teaching was embraced by some within the movement.
^Borchert, Donald M. (2006).The Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2nd ed.). Detroit: Macmillan Reference. p. 92.ISBN978-0-02-865780-6.In the most general use of the term, agnosticism is the view that we do not know whether there is a God or not.
^Craig, Edward; Floridi, Luciano (1998).Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge. p. 112.ISBN978-0-415-07310-3. Retrieved22 January 2018.In the popular sense, an agnostic is someone who neither believes nor disbelieves in God, whereas an atheist disbelieves in God. In the strict sense, however, agnosticism is the view that human reason is incapable of providing sufficient rational grounds to justify either the belief that God exists or the belief that God does not exist. In so far as one holds that our beliefs are rational only if they are sufficiently supported by human reason, the person who accepts the philosophical position of agnosticism will hold that neither the belief that God exists nor the belief that God does not exist is rational.
^"agnostic, agnosticism".OED Online, 3rd ed. Oxford University Press. 2012.agnostic. :A. n[oun]. :# A person who believes that nothing is known or can be known of immaterial things, especially of the existence or nature of God. :# In extended use: a person who is not persuaded by or committed to a particular point of view; a sceptic. Also: person of indeterminate ideology or conviction; an equivocator. :B. adj[ective]. :# Of or relating to the belief that the existence of anything beyond and behind material phenomena is unknown and (as far as can be judged) unknowable. Also: holding this belief. :# a. In extended use: not committed to or persuaded by a particular point of view; sceptical. Also: politically or ideologically unaligned; non-partisan, equivocal.agnosticism n. The doctrine or tenets of agnostics with regard to the existence of anything beyond and behind material phenomena or to knowledge of a First Cause or God.
^Draper, Paul (2017)."Atheism and Agnosticism".The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2017 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.Archived from the original on 11 December 2016. Retrieved22 January 2018.
^Mellaart, James (1967).Catal Huyuk: A Neolithic Town in Anatolia.McGraw-Hill. p. 181.
^A typical assessment: "A terracotta statuette of a seated (mother) goddess giving birth with each hand on the head of a leopard or panther from Çatalhöyük (dated around 6000 B.C.E.)" (Sarolta A. Takács, "Cybele and Catullus'Attis", in Eugene N. Lane,Cybele, Attis and related cults: essays in memory of M.J. Vermaseren 1996:376.
^Allen, James P. (July–August 1999). "Monotheism: The Egyptian Roots".Archaeology Odyssey.2 (3):44–54, 59.
^abJohnston, Sarah Iles (2004).Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.ISBN978-0-674-01517-3.
^abBaines, John (1996).Conceptions of God in Egypt: The One and the Many (Revised ed.). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.ISBN978-0-8014-1223-3.
^Allen, James P. (2001).Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 43–45.ISBN978-0-521-77483-3.
^Dunand, Françoise; Zivie-Coche, Christiane; Lorton, David (2004).Gods and Men in Egypt: 3000 BCE to 395 CE. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. p. 26.ISBN978-0-8014-8853-5.
^abHart, George (2005).Routledge Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses (2nd ed.). Hoboken: Taylor & Francis.ISBN978-0-203-02362-4.
^Wilkinson, Toby A.H. (1999).Early dynastic Egypt (1st ed.). New York: Routledge. pp. 261–262.ISBN978-0-415-18633-9.
^Shafer, Byron E.; Baines, John; Lesko, Leonard H.; Silverman, David P. (1991).Religion in Ancient Egypt: Gods, Myths, and Personal Practice. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. p. 58.ISBN978-0-8014-9786-5.
^Betz, Arnold Gottfried (2000)."Monotheism". In Freedman, David Noel; Myer, Allen C. (eds.).Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Eerdmans. p. 917.ISBN978-90-5356-503-2.
^Masson, Vadim Mikhaĭlovich (1988).Altyn-Depe. Philadelphia: University Museum, University of Pennsylvania. pp. 77–78.ISBN978-0-934718-54-7.Archived from the original on 15 February 2017. Retrieved28 June 2017.
^Harris, Rivkah (February 1991). "Inanna-Ishtar as Paradox and a Coincidence of Opposites".History of Religions.30 (3):261–78.doi:10.1086/463228.S2CID162322517.
^van der Toorn, Karel; Becking, Bob; van der Horst, Pieter W. (1999).Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible (2nd ed.). Leiden: Brill. pp. 543–549.ISBN978-0-8028-2491-2.
^abPollard, John Ricard Thornhill; Adkins, A.W.H. (19 September 1998)."Greek religion".Encyclopedia Britannica.Archived from the original on 9 March 2018. Retrieved22 January 2018.
^abZeki Saritoprak (2006)."Allah". In Oliver Leaman (ed.).The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 34.ISBN978-0-4153-2639-1.Archived from the original on 4 October 2021. Retrieved16 October 2020.
^abVincent J. Cornell (2005). "God: God in Islam". In Lindsay Jones (ed.).Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 5 (2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference. p. 724.
^"God".Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. Archived fromthe original on 27 March 2014. Retrieved18 December 2010.
^"Islam and Christianity",Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001): Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also refer to God asAllāh.
^Gardet, L."Allah". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.).Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Online.Archived from the original on 3 April 2019. Retrieved2 May 2007.
^Fowler, Merv (1999).Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices. Brighton: Sussex Academic Press. p. 65.ISBN978-1-898723-66-0. Retrieved28 June 2017.For a vast majority of Buddhists in Theravadin countries, however, the order of monks is seen by lay Buddhists as a means of gaining the most merit in the hope of accumulating good karma for a better rebirth.[permanent dead link]
^Lipner, Julius (2010).Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices (2nd ed.). Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. p. 8.ISBN978-0-415-45677-7.(...) one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu.
^abHale, Wash Edward (1986).Ásura in Early Vedic Religion (1st ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.ISBN978-81-208-0061-8.
^Gier, Nicholas F. (2000).Spiritual Titanism: Indian, Chinese, and Western Perspectives. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. pp. 59–76.ISBN978-0-7914-4528-0.
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