Dayak Dyak | |
|---|---|
 Dayak chief as seen holding a spear and aKlebit Bok shield. | |
| Total population | |
| c. 4.2 million | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
 Indonesia | c. 3,289,938[1] |
 Malaysia | c. 911,894[2] |
| Languages | |
| Indigenous Greater North Borneo (Malayic,Land Dayak,Kayan-Murik,Central Sarawak,North Sarawak,Sabahan) • Barito • Tamanic Other English • Malaysian • Indonesian | |
| Religion | |
Predominantly Christianity (Protestantism,Catholic) (62.7%)Minorities  Islam (Sunni) (31.6%)Kaharingan (4.8%) and Others (i.e.Animism) (0.9%)[3] | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Austronesian peoples Banjarese • BorneanMalays • Sama-Bajau • Rejang • Malagasy, etc. | |
TheDayak (/ˈdaɪ.ək/ ⓘ;older spelling:Dajak) orDyak orDayuh are one of thenative groups ofBorneo.[4] It is a loose term for over 200 riverine and hill-dwelling ethnic groups, located principally in the central and southern interior ofBorneo, each with its own dialect, customs, laws, territory, and culture, although common distinguishing traits are readily identifiable. The Dayak wereanimist (Kaharingan and Folk Hindus) in belief; however, since the 19th century there has been mass conversion toChristianity and toIslam.[5]
It is commonly assumed that the name originates from theBruneian andMelanau word for "interior people", without any reference to an exact ethnic group. Particularly, it derives from a relatedKenyah word for "upstream" (compare with ethnonymLunDayeh).[6][7] The term was adopted by Dutch and German authors as an umbrella term for any non-Muslim natives of Borneo. Thus, historically, the difference between Dayak and non-Dayak natives could be understood as a religious distinction. English writers disapproved of the classification made by the Dutch and Germans, withJames Brooke preferring to use the term Dayak for only two distinct groups, the Land (Bidayuh) and Sea Dayaks (Iban).[8]
The Dutch classification from the 19th century has since continued inIndonesia as a catch-all term for indigenous, often non-Muslim tribes on the island until today. The term gained traction in the early 1900s among rising middle class and intellectual figures (such asHausman Baboe) from those tribes and being used as a unifying term for Dayaks in Kalimantan.[9] InMalaysia, the term Dayak generally reserves as an almost exclusively reference to the natives ofSarawak, namelyIban (previously referred as Sea Dayaks) andBidayuh (known as Land Dayak in the past).[10] However, some modern interpretations of the term also include theOrang Ulu groups in Sarawak.[11]
Dayaks do not speak just one language.[12] Their indigenous languages belong to different subgroups of theMalayo-Polynesian languages, such asLand Dayak,Malayic,Sabahan (although the inclusion of Sabahan groups into Dayaks is not common in Malaysia), andBarito languages.[13][14] Nowadays most Dayaks are bilingual, in addition to their native language, are well-versed inIndonesian andMalay, depending on their country of origin. Many of Borneo's languages are endemic (which means they are spoken nowhere else). This cultural and linguistic diversity parallels the high biodiversity and relatedtraditional knowledge of Borneo.
It is estimated that around 170 languages and dialects are spoken on the island and some by just a few hundred people, thus posing a serious risk to the future of those languages and related heritage.
In 1954,Tjilik Riwut classified the various Dayak groups into 18 tribes throughout the island of Borneo, with 403 sub-tribes according to their respective native languages, customs, and cultures. However, he did not specify the name of the sub-tribes in his publication:[15]
| Cluster | Tribe | Number of sub-tribes | Regions with significant population[16] |
|---|---|---|---|
| I. Ngaju | 53 | Central-Southern Borneo | |
| II. Apukayan | 24 | Northeastern Borneo | |
| III. Iban/Sea Dayaks | 11 | Northwestern inland and coastal Borneo | |
| IV.Klemantan/Land Dayaks | Klemantan | 47 | Northwestern outback Borneo |
| V.Punan | 20 | Central-East Borneo | |
| VI. Murut | 6 | Northern Borneo | |
| VII. Ot Danum | 61 | Central-Southern Borneo |
In Indonesia, the Dayak indigenous religion has been given the nameKaharingan and may be said to be a form ofanimism. In 1945, during theJapanese occupation, the Japanese referred to Kaharingan as the religion of the Dayak people. During theNew Order in theSuharto regime in 1980, the Kaharingan is registered as a form ofHinduism in Indonesia, as the Indonesian state prior to 2017[17] only recognised6 forms of religion i.e. Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism respectively. The integration of Kaharingan with Hinduism is not due to the similarities in the theological system, but because Kaharingan is the oldest belief in Kalimantan. Unlike the development in Indonesian Kalimantan, Kaharingan is not used as a religious designation in Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore, thus the traditional Dayak belief system is categorized as a form of folk animism or paganism outside of the Indonesian border.[18] After wider recognition of indigenous beliefs in Indonesia in 2017, Kaharingan has been sometimes included under the umbrella termAliran Kepercayaan, though some Kaharingan activists still demands further recognition as a separate religion outside of the umbrella term.[19][20]
The practice of Kaharingan differs from group to group, but shamans, specialists in ecstatic flight to other spheres, are central to Dayak religion and serve to bring together the various realms of Heaven (Upper-world) and earth, and even Under-world, for example healing the sick by retrieving their souls which are journeying on their way to the Upper-world land of the dead, accompanying and protecting the soul of a dead person on the way to their proper place in the Upper-world, presiding over annual renewal and agricultural regeneration festivals, etc.[21] Death rituals are most elaborate when a noble (kamang) dies.[22] Due to the institutionalization of Kaharingan beliefs in Indonesia, Kaharingan practices in Kalimantan have been recently codified and remolded into more organized religion, such as with codification ofPanaturan as scripture of Kaharingan in 1971,[23][24] creation of official Kaharingan body Hindu Kaharingan Religion Council (Majelis Agama Hindu Kaharingan) in 1980, and standarization of its house of worship buildings calledBalai Basarah.[25][26]
Over the last two centuries, many Dayaks have converted to Christianity, making them the majority of Christians in Borneo, abandoning certain cultural rites and traditional practices in the process. Christianity was introduced by European missionaries in Borneo byRheinische Missionsgesellschaft (later followed up by theBasler Mission).[27] Religious differences between Muslim and Christian natives of Borneo have led, at various times, to communal tensions.[28] Relations, however between all religious groups are generally good.
Traditionally, in many parts of Borneo, embracing the Muslim faith is equated withMalayisation (Indonesian/Malay:masuk Melayu), i.e. assimilation into the broaderMalay ethnicity. There are, however, several Dayak sub-ethnicities (mainly inCentral Kalimantan) that predominantly adhere to Islam, but self-identify as Dayaks. These include e.g. theBakumpai people, who converted to Islam in the 19th century, but still have strong linguistic and cultural ties to theNgaju people. They have adopted a positive attitude towards the label "Dayak" and self-identify asMuslim Dayaks.[29]
Historically, most of the Dayak people areswidden cultivators who supplement their incomes by seeking forest products, both for subsistence (ferns, medicinal plants, fibers, and timber) and for sale; by fishing and hunting and by periodic wage labor.[30] Presently, many modern-day Dayaks are also actively engaged in many contemporary economic activities, especially in theurban areas of Borneo.[31]
In theIndonesian archipelago,toplessness was thenorm among the Dayak people,Javanese, andBalinese people of Indonesia beforethe introduction of Islam and contact with Western cultures. In Javanese and Balinese societies, women worked or rested comfortably topless. Among the Dayak, only big-breasted women or married women withsagging breasts covered their breasts because they interfered with their work. With the availability of shirts, toplessness was abandoned.[32]
In many Dayak societies, atattoo is regarded as a sacred creation that consolidates together the images of humans, flora, and fauna into a single body art.[33] The tattoo is used as a spiritual expression of life, to unify the living, the spiritual powers, and the universe.[34]
Traditionally, there are various reasons why a Dayak man or woman would choose body art. For some, it was used to mark a person's ethnic origin and rank in society. For others, the tattoo served as an act of devotion, as a demonstration of skills, to commemorate a special occasion in life, or as a symbol for therite of passage.[35]
Amongst several Dayak groups in the past, long femaleearlobes are regarded as a symbol of beauty. Theelongation process usually begins when the child is about 4 years old. During the initial stage, her ears will be pierced by an earring, so that the hisang (a special heavy silver or bronze earring) can be worn on her ears.
A new hisang will gradually be added with age. After a woman is married, her hisang will potentially be up to 20 pieces per-ear. As the hisang was sourced from precious and expansive metals like silver and bronze, it can signify herstatus, wealth, and social standing within the society. Thus, the longer her earlobes, the more important she is to the community. Presently, the practice of having stretched earlobes is almost limited to the elderly, as the practice of applying hisang amongst newborn babies has been rare since the 1960s.[36]
In the traditional Dayak society, thelong house orLamin House, is regarded as the heart of the community, it functions as the village, as well as the societal architectural expression. This large building, sometimes exceeding 200 meters in length, may be divided into independent household apartments. The building is also equipped with communal areas for cooking, ceremonies, socializing, and blacksmithing.
The superstructure is not solely about architecture and design. It is a part of the Dayak traditional political entity and administrative system. Thus, culturally the people residing in the longhouse are governed by the customs and traditions of the longhouse.[37]
Based on the archeological records in Borneo, it was discovered that the early inhabitants of the island had used organic materials to make simplebeads. The beads were originally sourced from stones, bones, teeth, and shells. When the foreign traders arrived between the 8th-9th century, they further enhanced the ancient bead cultures of Borneo with the introduction ofcolourful glass beads. These early beads are usually small, in basic colours of red, yellow, white, turquoise, and black. These were followed by multicolored beads around the 1500s-1600s.[38]
Traditionalbeadworks have occupied a pivotal status in various Dayak communities. In many Dayak cultures, beads are not solely regarded as ornamental objects, but they are a major cultural influence.[39] Some of the beads only being used for ritualistic practices and are worn during such ceremonies. While heirloom beads (known as pesaka) are regarded as an important family heirloom and oftentimes being inherited from one generation to another.
Metalworking is elaborately developed in makingmandaus (machetes –parang in Malay and Indonesian). The blade is made of softer iron, to prevent breakage, with a narrow strip of a harder iron wedged into a slot in the cutting edge for sharpness in a process calledngamboh (iron-smithing).
In headhunting, it was necessary to be able to draw theparang quickly. For this purpose, themandau is fairly short, which also better serves the purpose of trail cutting in dense forests. It is holstered with the cutting edge facing upwards and at that side, there is an upward protrusion on the handle, so it can be drawn very quickly with the side of the hand without having to reach over and grasp the handle first. The hand can then grasp the handle while it is being drawn. The combination of these three factors (short, cutting edge up, and protrusion) makes for an extremely fast drawing-action.
In the past, the Dayaks were feared for their ancient tradition ofheadhunting practices (the ritual is also known asNgayau by the Dayaks).
Among the most prominent legacies during the colonial rule in theDutch Borneo (present-day Kalimantan) is theTumbang Anoi Agreement held in 1894 in Damang Batu, Central Kalimantan (the seat of theKahayan Dayaks). It is a formal meeting that gathered all the Dayak tribes in Kalimantan for a peace resolution. In the meeting that is reputed to take several months, the Dayak people throughout the Kalimantan agreed to end the headhunting tradition as it believed the tradition caused conflict and tension between various Dayak groups. The meeting ended with a peace resolution by the Dayak people.[40]
Subsequently, the headhunting began to surface again in the mid-1940s, when theAllied powers encouraged the practice against theJapanese occupation of Borneo.[41] It also slightly surged in the late 1960s when theIndonesian government encouraged Dayaks to purge theChinese from interior Kalimantan who were suspected of supporting communism in mainland China, and in a period of high tension betweenMadurese emigrants and Dayak during theSambas andSampit conflicts around the turn of the century.[42]
The Dayak soldiers or trackers are regarded as equivalent in bravery to theRoyal Scots or theGurkha soldiers. TheSarawak Rangers were absorbed into the British Army as the Far East Land Forces which could be deployed anywhere in the world but upon the formation of Malaysia in 1963, it formed the basis of the present-dayRoyal Ranger Regiment.[43]
While in Indonesia,Tjilik Riwut was remembered as he led the firstairborne operation bythe Indonesian National Armed Forces on 17 October 1947. The team was known as MN 1001, with 17 October celebrated annually as the anniversary date for theIndonesian Air ForcePaskhas, which traces its origins to that pioneer paratroop operation in Borneo.[44]
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