Map showing the location of the Dardanelles (yellow), relative to theBosporus (red), the Sea of Marmara, the Aegean Sea, and the Black Sea.View of the Dardanelles taken from the Landsat 7 satellite in September 2006. The body of water on the left is the Aegean Sea, while the one on the upper right is the Sea of Marmara. The Dardanelles is the tapered waterway running diagonally between the two seas, from the northeast to the southwest. The long, narrow upper peninsula on the northern shores of the strait is Gallipoli (Turkish:Gelibolu), and constitutes the banks of the continent of Europe, while the lower peninsula is Troad (Turkish:Biga) and constitutes the banks of the continent of Asia. The city of Çanakkale is visible along the shores of the lower peninsula, centered at the only point where a sharp outcropping juts into the otherwise-linear Dardanelles.
TheDardanelles (/ˌdɑːrdəˈnɛlz/DAR-də-NELZ;Turkish:Çanakkale Boğazı,lit. 'Strait of Çanakkale';Greek:Δαρδανέλλια,romanized: Dardanéllia), also known as theStrait of Gallipoli (after theGallipoli peninsula) and in classical antiquity as theHellespont (/ˈhɛlɪspɒnt/HEL-isp-ont;Classical Greek:Ἑλλήσποντος,romanized: Hellḗspontos,lit. 'Sea ofHelle'), is a narrow, natural strait and internationally significant waterway in northwesternTurkey that forms part of the continental boundary betweenAsia andEurope and separates Asian Turkey from European Turkey. Together with theBosporus, the Dardanelles forms theTurkish Straits.
One of the world's narrowest straits used forinternational navigation, the Dardanelles connects theSea of Marmara with theAegean andMediterranean seas while also allowing passage to theBlack Sea by extension via the Bosporus. The Dardanelles is 61 kilometres (38 mi) long and 1.2 to 6 kilometres (0.75 to 3.73 mi) wide. It has an average depth of 55 metres (180 ft) with a maximum depth of 103 metres (338 ft) at its narrowest point abreast the city ofÇanakkale. The firstfixed crossing across the Dardanelles opened in 2022 with the completion of the1915 Çanakkale Bridge.
Most of the northern shores of the strait along the Gallipoli peninsula (Turkish:Gelibolu) are sparsely settled, while the southern shores along theTroad peninsula (Turkish:Biga) are inhabited by the city of Çanakkale's urban population of 110,000.
The contemporary Turkish nameÇanakkale Boğazı, meaning 'Çanakkale Strait', is derived from theeponymous midsize city that adjoins the strait, itself meaning 'pottery fort'—fromچاناق (çanak, 'pottery') +قلعه (kale, 'fortress')—in reference to the area's famous pottery and ceramic wares, and the landmark Ottoman fortress of Sultaniye.
The English nameDardanelles is an abbreviation ofStrait of the Dardanelles. During Ottoman times there was a castle on each side of the strait. These castles together were called theDardanelles,[1][2] probably named afterDardanus, an ancient city on the Asian shore of the strait which in turn was said to take its name fromDardanus, the mythical son ofZeus andElectra. The name comes from theDardani in the Balkans, according to Papazoglu.[3]
The ancientGreek nameἙλλήσποντος (Hellēspontos) means "Sea of Helle", and was the ancient name of the narrow strait. It was variously named in classical literatureHellespontium Pelagus,Rectum Hellesponticum, andFretum Hellesponticum. It was so called fromHelle, the daughter of Athamas, who was drowned here in the mythology of theGolden Fleece.[4]
As amaritimewaterway, the Dardanelles connects various seas along theEastern Mediterranean, theBalkans, theNear East, andWestern Eurasia, and specifically connects theAegean Sea to theSea of Marmara. The Marmara further connects to theBlack Sea via theBosporus, while the Aegean further links to theMediterranean. Thus, the Dardanelles allows maritime connections from the Black Sea all the way to the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean via Gibraltar, and the Indian Ocean through theSuez Canal, making it a crucial international waterway, in particular for the passage of goods coming in fromRussia.
The strait is 61 kilometres (38 mi) long, and 1.2 to 6 kilometres (0.7 to 3.7 mi) wide, averaging 55 metres (180 ft) deep with a maximum depth of 103 metres (338 ft) at its narrowest point atNara Burnu, abreastÇanakkale. There are two major currents through the strait: asurface current flows from the Black Sea towards the Aegean Sea, and a more salineundercurrent flows in the opposite direction.[5]
The Dardanelles is unique in many respects. The very narrow and winding shape of the strait is more akin to that of a river. It is considered one of the most hazardous, crowded, difficult and potentially dangerous waterways in the world. The currents produced by the tidal action in the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara are such that ships under sail must wait at anchorage for the right conditions before entering the Dardanelles.
As part of the only passage between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, the Dardanelles has always been of great importance from a commercial and military point of view, and remains strategically important today. It is a major sea access route for numerous countries, includingRussia andUkraine. Control over it has been an objective of a number of hostilities in modern history, notably the attack of theAllied Powers on the Dardanelles during the 1915Battle of Gallipoli in the course ofWorld War I.
Ancient Dardanian, Persian, Roman, and Byzantine eras (pre-1454)
An artist's illustration depictingXerxes' alleged "punishment" of the Hellespont
The ancient city ofTroy was located near the western entrance of the strait, and the strait's Asiatic shore was the focus of theTrojan War. Troy was able to control the marine traffic entering this vital waterway. ThePersian army ofXerxes I of Persia and later the Macedonian army ofAlexander the Great crossed the Dardanelles in opposite directions to invade each other's lands, in 480 BC and 334 BC respectively.
Herodotus says that, circa 482 BC, Xerxes I (the son ofDarius) had twopontoon bridges built across the width of the Hellespont atAbydos, in order that his huge army could cross from Persia intoGreece. This crossing was named byAeschylus in his tragedyThe Persians as the cause of divine intervention against Xerxes.[6]
According to Herodotus (vv.34), both bridges were destroyed by a storm andXerxes had those responsible for building the bridges beheaded and the strait itself whipped.The Histories of Herodotus vii.33–37 and vii.54–58 give details of building and crossing ofXerxes' Pontoon Bridges. Xerxes is then said to have thrownfetters into the strait, given it three hundred lashes with multiple whips and branded it with red-hot irons as the soldiers shouted at the water.[7]
Herodotus commented that this was a "highly presumptuous way to address the Hellespont" but in no way atypical of Xerxes. (vii.35)
Harpalus the engineer is said to have eventually helped the invading armies to cross by lashing the ships together with their bows facing the current and adding two additional anchors to each ship.
From the perspective ofancient Greek mythologyHelle, the daughter of Athamas, supposedly was drowned at the Dardanelles in the legend of theGolden Fleece. Likewise, the strait was the scene of the legend ofHero and Leander, wherein the lovesick Leander swam the strait nightly in order to tryst with his beloved, the priestess Hero, but was ultimately drowned in a storm.
Also, the Dardanelles was an important source of income for the ruler of the region. At theIstanbul Archaeological Museum a marble plate contains a law by theByzantine Emperor Anastasius I (491–518 AD), that regulated fees for passage through the customs office of the Dardanelles. Translation:
... Whoever dares to violate these regulations shall no longer be regarded as a friend, and he shall be punished. Besides, the administrator of the Dardanelles must have the right to receive 50 golden Litrons, so that these rules, which we make out of piety, shall never ever be violated... ... The distinguished governor and major of the capital, who already has both hands full of things to do, has turned to our lofty piety in order to reorganize the entry and exit of all ships through the Dardanelles... ... Starting from our day and also in the future, anybody who wants to pass through the Dardanelles must pay the following:
– All wine merchants who bring wine to the capital (Constantinopolis), exceptCilicians, have to pay the Dardanelles officials 6follis and 2sextarius of wine. – In the same manner, all merchants of olive-oil, vegetables and lard must pay the Dardanelles officials 6 follis. Cilician sea-merchants have to pay 3 follis and in addition to that, 1 keration (12 follis) to enter, and 2 keration to exit.
– All wheat merchants have to pay the officials 3 follis per modius, and a further sum of 3 follis when leaving.
Since the 14th century the Dardanelles have almost continuously been controlled by the Turks.
In 1833, following theOttoman Empire's defeat in theRusso-Turkish War of 1828–1829, Russia pressured the Ottomans to sign theTreaty of Hunkiar Iskelesi—which required the closing of the straits to warships of non-Black Sea powers at Russia's request. That would have effectively given Russia a free hand in the Black Sea.
This treaty alarmed theOttoman Empire, who were concerned that the consequences of potential Russian expansionism in the Black Sea and Mediterranean regions could conflict with their own possessions and economic interest in the region. At theLondon Straits Convention in July 1841, theUnited Kingdom,France,Austria, andPrussia pressured Russia to agree that only Turkish warships could traverse the Dardanelles in peacetime. The United Kingdom and France subsequently sent their fleets through the straits to defend the Danube front and to attack theCrimean Peninsula during theCrimean War of 1853–1856 – but they did so as allies of the Ottoman Empire. Following the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War, theCongress of Paris in 1856 formally reaffirmed the London Straits Convention.
1915 Landing of French troops in Moudros (Lemnos island) during theGallipoli CampaignLanding at Gallipoli in April 1915Anzac CoveThe Sphinx overlooking Anzac Cove
In 1915 theAllies sent a substantial invasion force of British, Indian, Australian, New Zealand, French and Newfoundland troops to attempt to open up the straits. In theGallipoli campaign, Turkish troops trapped the Allies on the coasts of the Gallipoli peninsula. The campaign damaged the career ofWinston Churchill, thenFirst Lord of the Admiralty (in office 1911–1915), who had eagerly promoted the (unsuccessful) use ofRoyal Navysea power to force open the straits.Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, subsequent founder of theRepublic of Turkey, served as an Ottoman commander during the land campaign.
The Turks mined the straits to prevent Allied ships from penetrating them but, in minor actions two submarines, one British and one Australian, did succeed in penetrating the minefields. The British submarine sank an obsolete Turkishpre-dreadnought battleship off theGolden Horn of Istanbul.Sir Ian Hamilton'sMediterranean Expeditionary Force failed in its attempt to capture the Gallipoli peninsula, and the British cabinet ordered its withdrawal in December 1915, after eight months' fighting. Total Allied deaths included 41,000 British and Irish,[8] 15,000 French, 8,700 Australians, 2,700 New Zealanders, 1,370 Indians and 49 Newfoundlanders.[9] Total Turkish deaths were around 60,000.
Following the war, the 1920Treaty of Sèvres demilitarized the strait and made it an international territory under the control of theLeague of Nations. The Ottoman Empire's non-ethnically Turkish territories were broken up and partitioned among the Allied Powers, and Turkish jurisdiction over thestraits curbed.
After the dissolution of theOttoman Empire following a lengthy campaign by Turks as part of theTurkish War of Independence against both the Allied Powers and the Ottoman court, theRepublic of Turkey was created in 1923 by theTreaty of Lausanne, which established most of the modern sovereign territory of Turkey and restored thestraits to Turkish territory, with the condition that Turkey keep them demilitarized and allow all foreign warships and commercial shipping to traverse the straits freely.
As part of its national security strategy, Turkey eventually rejected the terms of the treaty, and subsequently remilitarizedthe straits area over the following decade. Following extensive diplomatic negotiations, the reversion was formalized under theMontreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Turkish Straits on 20 July 1936. That convention, which is still in force today, treats the straits as an international shipping lane while allowing Turkey to retain the right to restrict the naval traffic of non-Black Sea states.
DuringWorld War II, through February 1945, when Turkey was neutral for most of the length of the conflict, the Dardanelles were closed to the ships of the belligerent nations. Turkey declared war on Germany in February 1945, but it did not employ any offensive forces during the war.
In July 1946, theSoviet Union sent a note to Turkey proposing a new régime for the Dardanelles that would have excluded all nations except the Black Sea powers. The second proposal was that the straits should be put under joint Turkish-Soviet defence. This meant that Turkey, the Soviet Union, Bulgaria and Romania would be the only states having access to the Black Sea through the Dardanelles. The Turkish government however, under pressure from the United States, rejected these proposals.[10]
Turkey joinedNATO in 1952, thus affording its straits even more strategic importance as a commercial and military waterway.
In more recent years,[when?] theTurkish Straits have become particularly important for the oil industry. Russian oil, from ports such asNovorossyisk, is exported by tankers primarily to western Europe and the U.S. via the Bosporus and the Dardanelles straits.
The waters of the Dardanelles are traversed by numerous passenger and vehicular ferries daily, as well as recreational and fishing boats ranging from dinghies to yachts owned by both public and private entities.
The strait also experiences significant amounts of commercial shipping traffic.
The Çanakkale 1915 Bridge joinsLapseki, a district of Çanakkale, on the Asian side andSütlüce, a village of theGelibolu district, on the European side.[13] It is part of planned expansions to the Turkish National Highway Network. Work on the bridge began in March 2017, and it was opened on March 18, 2022.[14]
2submarine cable systems transmitting electric power at 400 kV bridge the Dardanelles to feed west and east of Istanbul. They have their own landing stations in Lapseki and Sütlüce. The first, situated in the northeast quarter portion of the strait, was energised in April 2015 and provides 2GW via 6 phases 400 kV AC 3.9 km far through the sea. The second, somewhat in the middle of the strait, was still under construction in June 2016 and will provide similar capabilities to the first line.
Both subsea power lines cross 4 optical fibre data lines laid earlier along the strait.[15] A published map shows communication lines leading from Istanbul into the Mediterranean, named MedNautilus and landing atAthens,Sicily and elsewhere.[16]
Map of the Dardanelles drawn by G. F. Morrell, 1915, showing theGallipoli peninsula and the west coast of Turkey, as well as the location of front line troops and landings during theGallipoli Campaign
^Hoogstraten, David van; Nidek, Matthaeus Brouërius van; Schuer, Jan Lodewyk (1727)."Dardanellen".Groot algemeen historisch, geografisch, genealogisch, en oordeelkundig woordenboek (in Dutch). Vol. 4: D en E. Amsterdam/Utrecht/The Hague. p. 25.OCLC1193061215.Archived from the original on 24 October 2017.
^Papazoglu, F. (1978). The Central Balkan Tribes in Pre-Roman Times: Triballi, Autariatae, Dardanians, Scordisci and Moesians. Niederlande: Hakkert, p. 132
^Yüce, Gülnazi (7–8 June 2016).Submarine Cable Projects (2-03)(PDF). First South East European Regional CIGRÉ Conference. Portorož, Slovenia. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 9 April 2018. Retrieved8 April 2018.
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