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Danube

Coordinates:45°13′3″N29°45′41″E / 45.21750°N 29.76139°E /45.21750; 29.76139
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected fromDanube River)
Second-longest river in Europe
This article is about the river. For other uses, seeDanube (disambiguation).
"Istrus" redirects here. For the Greek figure, seeIstrus (mythology). For the ancient city, seeHistria (ancient city).

Danube
The Danube inBudapest
Map
Native name
Location
Countries
  • Germany
  • Austria
  • Slovakia
  • Hungary
  • Croatia
  • Serbia
  • Bulgaria
  • Romania
  • Moldova
  • Ukraine
Cities
Physical characteristics
SourceBreg
 • locationFurtwangen im Schwarzwald,Baden-Württemberg, Germany
 • coordinates48°05′44″N08°09′18″E / 48.09556°N 8.15500°E /48.09556; 8.15500
 • elevation1,078 m (3,537 ft)
2nd sourceBrigach
 • locationSt. Georgen im Schwarzwald,Baden-Württemberg, Germany
 • coordinates48°06′24″N08°16′51″E / 48.10667°N 8.28083°E /48.10667; 8.28083
 • elevation940 m (3,080 ft)
Source confluence 
 • locationDonaueschingen,Baden-Württemberg, Germany
 • coordinates47°57′03″N08°31′13″E / 47.95083°N 8.52028°E /47.95083; 8.52028
MouthDanube Delta
 • location
Romania
 • coordinates
45°13′3″N29°45′41″E / 45.21750°N 29.76139°E /45.21750; 29.76139
Length2,850 km (1,770 mi)[1]
Basin size801,463 km2 (309,447 sq mi)[4]
Width 
 • minimumMiddle Danube (Iron Gates) 150 m (490 ft); Lower Danube (Brăila) 400 m (1,300 ft)[2]
 • averageUpper Danube 300 m (980 ft); Middle Danube 400–800 m (1,300–2,600 ft); Lower Danube 900–1,000 m (3,000–3,300 ft)[3][2][4]
 • maximumMiddle Danube 1,500 m (4,900 ft); Lower Danube 1,700 m (5,600 ft)[4][2]
Depth 
 • minimum1 m (3 ft 3 in) (Upper Danube)[4]
 • averageUpper Danube 8 m (26 ft); Middle Danube 6–10 m (20–33 ft), 53 m (174 ft) (Iron Gates); Lower Danube 9 m (30 ft)[3][2][4][5]
 • maximumMiddle Danube (Iron Gates) 90 m (300 ft); Lower Danube 34 m (112 ft)[2]
Discharge 
 • locationDanube Delta
 • average(Period: 1931–2020)6,452 m3/s (227,900 cu ft/s)[7][8]
 • minimum1,790 m3/s (63,000 cu ft/s)[6][7]
 • maximum15,900 m3/s (560,000 cu ft/s)[6][7]
Discharge 
 • locationBelgrade
 • average(Period: 1931–2020)5,300 m3/s (190,000 cu ft/s)[7]
Discharge 
 • locationBudapest
 • average(Period: 1931–2020)2,350 m3/s (83,000 cu ft/s)[7]
Discharge 
 • locationVienna
 • average(Period: 1931–2020)1,920 m3/s (68,000 cu ft/s)[7]
Discharge 
 • locationPassau (Bavaria, 30 km before town)
 • average(Period: 1931–2020)580 m3/s (20,000 cu ft/s)[7]
Basin features
ProgressionBlack Sea
River systemDanube River
Danube summary route map
km
2860
Source atDonaueschingen
2587
Limit of navigation atUlm
2458
Ingolstadt
2411
2376
Regensburg
2226
RiverInn
Germany
Austria
2128
Linz
1918
Vienna
Austria
Slovakia
RiverMorava
1867
Bratislava
Slovakia
Hungary
1794
Győr
1639
Budapest
1579
Dunaújváros
Hungary
Croatia
1433
Hungary
Serbia
1425
1424
Bezdan Bridge
1382
RiverDrava
1367
Bogojevo Road Bridge
1366
Bogojevo Railway Bridge
1335
Vukovar
1297
Ilok–Bačka Palanka Bridge
Croatia
Serbia
1296
1255
Varadin Bridge
1254
Novi Sad
1254
Žeželj Bridge
1253
Danube–Tisa–Danube Canal
1232
Beška Bridge
1215
RiverTisza
1176
Pupin Bridge
1173
Zemun
1170
RiverSava
1169
Belgrade
1167
Pančevo Bridge
1153
Pančevo
1104
1116
Smederevo
1113
Pipeline bridge
1112
Kovin Bridge
1077
Danube–Tisa–Danube Canal
1076
Serbia
Romania
943
Iron Gate I
930
Drobeta-Turnu Severin
863
Iron Gate II
Serbia
Bulgaria
846
796
New Europe Bridge
RiverOlt
495
Ruse
489
Danube Bridge
Bulgaria
Romania
300
Anghel Saligny Bridge
300
Cernavodă Bridge
238
Giurgeni–Vadu Oii Bridge
Romania
Moldova
Moldova
Ukraine
Danube Delta (Romania/Ukraine)
0
Note:
Distances are in kilometers, rounded to the nearest kilometer.
Waterway distances are shown, not towpath distances.
Country capitals are shown in bold.

TheDanube (/ˈdæn.juːb/DAN-yoob; see alsoother names) is thesecond-longest river in Europe, after theVolga in Russia. It flows through Central and Southeastern Europe, from theBlack Forest south into theBlack Sea. A large and historically important river, it was once a frontier of theRoman Empire. In the 21st century, it connects ten European countries, running through their territories or marking a border. Originating in Germany, the Danube flows southeast for 2,850 km (1,770 mi), passing through or bordering Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, Moldova, and Ukraine. Among the manycities on the river are four national capitals:Vienna,Bratislava,Budapest, andBelgrade. Its drainage basin amounts to 817,000 km2 (315,000 sq mi) and extends into nine more countries.

The Danube's longest headstream, theBreg, rises inFurtwangen im Schwarzwald, while the river carries its name from its source confluence in thepalace park inDonaueschingen onwards. Since ancient times, the Danube has been a traditional trade route in Europe. Today, 2,415 km (1,501 mi) of its total length are navigable. The Danube is linked to theNorth Sea via theRhine–Main–Danube Canal, connecting the Danube atKelheim with theMain atBamberg. The river is also an important source ofhydropower and drinking water.

The Danube river basin is home to such fish species aspike,zander,huchen,Wels catfish,burbot andtench. It is also home to numerous diversecarp andsturgeon, as well assalmon andtrout. A few species ofeuryhaline fish, such as Europeanseabass,mullet, andeel, inhabit theDanube Delta and the lower portion of the river.

Names and etymology

[edit]

Today the river carries its name from its source confluence inDonaueschingen, Germany, to its discharge into theBlack Sea via theDanube Delta in Romania and Ukraine.

The river was known to theancient Greeks as theIstros (Ἴστρος)[9] from a root possibly also encountered in the ancient name of theDniester (Danaster in Latin,Tiras in Greek) and akin toIranicturos 'swift' andSanskritiṣiras (इषिरस्) 'swift', from thePIE*isro-,*sreu 'to flow'.[10]

In the Middle Ages, the GreekTiras was borrowed into Italian asTyrlo and into Turkic languages asTyrla; the latter was further borrowed into Romanian as a regionalism (Turlă).[10]

The Thraco-Phrygian name wasMatoas,[11] "the bringer of luck".[12]

TheMiddle Mongolian name for the Danube was transliterated asTho-na in 1829 byJean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat.[13]

The modern languages spoken in the Danube basin all use names derived from theLatin nameDanubius:

LanguageNamePronunciation (IPA)Flow sequence[a]
LatinDanubius, DānuviusN/A
GermanDonauIPA:[ˈdoːnaʊ]ⓘ1Germany
2Austria
BavarianDoanaN/A
SilesianDōnajN/A
Upper SorbianDunajIPA:[ˈdunaj]N/A
CzechDunajIPA:[ˈdunaj]N/A
SlovakianDunajIPA:[ˈdunaj]3Slovakia
PolishDunajIPA:[ˈdunaj]ⓘN/A
HungarianDunaIPA:[ˈdunɒ]ⓘ4Hungary
SlovenianDonavaIPA:[ˈdóːnaʋa]N/A
Serbo–CroatianDunav / ДунавIPA:[dǔna(ː)ʋ]5Croatia
6Serbia
MacedonianДунавIPA:[dǔna(ː)ʋ]N/A
RomanianDunăre,
definite form Dunărea		IPA:[ˈdunəre], definite formIPA:[ˈdunəre̯a][14]7Romania
9Moldova
BulgarianДунав (Dúnav)IPA:[ˈdunɐf]8Bulgaria
UkrainianДунай (Dunáy)IPA:[dʊˈnɑj]10Ukraine
GreekΔούναβης (Doúnavis)IPA:[ˈðunavis]N/A
FrenchDanubeIPA:[da.nyb]N/A
ItalianDanubioIPA:[daˈnuːbjo]N/A
PortugueseDanúbioIPA:[dɐˈnu.βju]N/A
SpanishDanubioIPA:[daˈnuβjo]N/A
RussianДунай (Dunáy)IPA:[dʊˈnaj]N/A
TurkishTuna / طونهIPA:[tuˈnɐ]N/A
RomanshDanubiN/A
AlbanianDanub,
definite form: Danubi[15]		N/A

Etymology

[edit]

Danube is anOld European river name derived from theCeltic 'Danu' or 'Don'[16] (both Celtic gods), which itself derived from theProto-Indo-European*deh₂nu. Other European river names from the same root include the Dunaj, Dzvina/Daugava,Don,Donets,Dnieper,Dniestr,Dysna andTana/Deatnu. InRigvedic Sanskrit,danu (दनु) means "fluid, dewdrop" anddanuja (दनु-ज) means "born fromdanu" or "born from dew-drops". InAvestan, the same word means "river". TheFinnish word for Danube isTonava, which is most likely derived from the name of the river inGerman,Donau. ItsSámi nameDeatnu means "Great River". It is possible thatdānu inScythian as in Avestan was a generic word for "river":Dnieper andDniestr, fromDanapris andDanastius, are presumed to continue Scythian*dānu apara "far river" and*dānu nazdya- "near river", respectively.[17]

In Latin, the Danube was variously known asDanubius,Danuvius,Ister[18] orHister. The Latin name is masculine, as are all itsSlavic names, exceptSlovene (the name of theRhine is also masculine in Latin, most of the Slavic languages, as well as in German). The GermanDonau (Early Modern GermanDonaw,Tonaw,[19]Middle High GermanTuonowe)[20] is feminine, as it has been re-interpreted as containing the suffix-ouwe "wetland".

Romanian differs from other surrounding languages in designating the river with a feminine term,Dunărea (IPA:[ˈdunəre̯a]).[10] This form was not inherited from Latin, although Romanian is a Romance language.[14] To explain the loss of the Latin name, scholars who suppose that Romanian developed near the large river propose[14] that the Romanian name descends from a hypotheticalThracian*Donaris. The Proto-Indo-European root of this presumed name is related to the Iranic word "don-"/"dan-", while the supposed suffix-aris is encountered in the ancient name of theIalomița River,Naparis, and in the unidentifiedMiliare river mentioned byJordanes in hisGetica.[10] Gábor Vékony says that this hypothesis is not plausible, because the Greeks borrowed theIstros form from the native Thracians.[14] He proposes that the Romanian name is a loanword from a Turkic language (Cuman orPecheneg).[14]

Geography

[edit]
The Danubebasin
The hydrogeographicalsource of the Danube atSt. Martin's Chapel inFurtwangen im Schwarzwald: theBregquelle, the source of the Danube's longest headstream, theBreg, where the Danube is symbolized by the Roman allegory for the river,Danuvius.
The symbolical source of the Danube inDonaueschingen: the source of theDonaubach (Danube Brook), which flows into theBrigach.

Classified as aninternational waterway, itoriginates in the town ofDonaueschingen, in theBlack Forest ofGermany, at theconfluence of the riversBrigach andBreg. The Danube then flows southeast for about 2,730 km (1,700 mi), passing through four capital cities (Vienna,Bratislava,Budapest, andBelgrade) before emptying into theBlack Sea via theDanube Delta inRomania andUkraine.

International status

[edit]

Once a long-standing frontier of theRoman Empire, the river passes through or touches the borders of 10 countries. Itsdrainage basin extends into nine more (ten ifKosovo is included).[21]

Flow
seq.		CountryBasin
area[21]		Local
name		Points of interest
1Germany7.0%DonauDonaueschingen – source
2Austria10.0%DonauVienna – capital
3Slovakia5.9%DunajBratislava – capital
4Hungary11.6%DunaBudapest – capital
5Croatia4.4%Dunav
6Serbia10.2%DunavBelgrade – capital
7Romania29.0%DunăreaDanube Delta –Black Sea
8Bulgaria[b]5.9%Dunav
9Moldova1.6%Dunărea
10Ukraine3.8%ДунайDanube Delta –Black Sea

Drainage basin

[edit]

In addition to the bordering countries (see above), thedrainage basin includes parts of nine more countries:Bosnia and Herzegovina (4.6% of the basin area), theCzech Republic (2.9%),Slovenia (2.0%),Montenegro (0.9%),Switzerland (0.2%),Italy (<0.15%),Poland (<0.1%),North Macedonia (<0.1%) andAlbania (<0.1%).[21] The total drainage basin is 801,463 km2 (309,447 sq mi) in area,[22][23] and is home to 83 million people.[24] The highest point of the drainage basin is the summit ofPiz Bernina at theItaly–Switzerland border, at 4,049 m (13,284 ft).[25] The Danube River Basin is divided into three main parts, separated by "gates" where the river is forced to cut through mountainous sections:[24]

Discharge

[edit]

Mean annual discharge on the hydrological stations (period from 2000 to 2024);[4][26][27][28]

YearMean annual discharge in m3/s (cu ft/s)
Reni
Isaccea		SilistraPristolBatina
Bezdan		NagymarosSzobBratislava
Wolfsthal		Untergries-bach
20006,580.6 (232,390)6,198.1 (218,880)5,585.9 (197,260)2,669.4 (94,270)2,627.2 (92,780)2,337.9 (82,560)1,667.2 (58,880)
20016,304.3 (222,630)5,919.4 (209,040)5,421.8 (191,470)2,432.5 (85,900)2,382.3 (84,130)2,231.3 (78,800)1,627.6 (57,480)
20026,837.1 (241,450)6,100.1 (215,420)5,392 (190,400)2,824.9 (99,760)2,855.6 (100,840)2,683 (94,700)1,803.9 (63,700)
20035,021 (177,300)4,571 (161,400)3,825 (135,100)1,786 (63,100)1,722 (60,800)1,647 (58,200)1,153 (40,700)
20046,524 (230,400)6,088 (215,000)5,233 (184,800)2,025 (71,500)2,013 (71,100)1,852 (65,400)1,213 (42,800)
20058,711 (307,600)7,659 (270,500)6,396 (225,900)2,420 (85,000)2,329 (82,200)2,115 (74,700)1,359 (48,000)
20068,428 (297,600)7,370 (260,000)6,616 (233,600)2,110 (75,000)2,503 (88,400)2,186 (77,200)1,396 (49,300)
20075,626 (198,700)5,195 (183,500)4,512 (159,300)2,182 (77,100)2,136 (75,400)1,916 (67,700)1,287 (45,400)
20085,909 (208,700)5,358 (189,200)4,736 (167,300)2,163 (76,400)2,079 (73,400)1,876 (66,300)1,339 (47,300)
20096,492 (229,300)5,990 (212,000)5,412 (191,100)2,607 (92,100)2,441 (86,200)2,186 (77,200)1,433 (50,600)
20109,598 (339,000)8,515 (300,700)7,424 (262,200)2,879 (101,700)2,615 (92,300)2,130 (75,000)1,420 (50,000)
20115,303 (187,300)2,000 (71,000)
20125,053 (178,400)2,240 (79,000)
20137,164 (253,000)6,558 (231,600)5,946 (210,000)2,863 (101,100)2,684 (94,800)2,417 (85,400)1,671 (59,000)
20147,446 (263,000)6,901 (243,700)5,756 (203,300)2,198 (77,600)2,036 (71,900)1,788 (63,100)1,237 (43,700)
20156,138 (216,800)5,722 (202,100)4,971 (175,500)2,030 (72,000)1,903 (67,200)1,629 (57,500)1,240 (44,000)
20166,465 (228,300)5,993 (211,600)5,339 (188,500)2,261 (79,800)2,196 (77,600)1,944 (68,700)1,412 (49,900)
20175,202 (183,700)4,813 (170,000)4,270 (151,000)2,143 (75,700)2,041 (72,100)1,844 (65,100)1,307 (46,200)
20186,487.8 (229,110)5,875.5 (207,490)4,891 (172,700)1,906.3 (67,320)1,808.1 (63,850)1,644.1 (58,060)1,227.8 (43,360)
20195,579 (197,000)5,168 (182,500)4,593 (162,200)2,253 (79,600)2,114 (74,700)1,962 (69,300)1,446 (51,100)
20204,893.5 (172,810)4,659 (164,500)4,095 (144,600)2,215 (78,200)2,026 (71,500)1,841 (65,000)1,285 (45,400)
20215,998 (211,800)5,505 (194,400)4,696 (165,800)2,178 (76,900)2,028 (71,600)1,838 (64,900)1,304 (46,100)
20225,753 (203,200)2,180 (77,000)
20236,623.8 (233,920)2,240 (79,000)
20245,776.4 (203,990)

Multiannual average, minimum and maximum discharge (water period from 1876 to 2010)[29][8]

StationDischarge (m3/s)Discharge (cu ft/s)
MinMeanMaxMinMeanMax
Ceatal Izmail1,8896,48914,67366,700229,200518,200
Reni,Isaccea1,8056,56414,82063,700231,800523,000
Zimnicea,Svishtov1,4116,01814,51049,800212,500512,000
Orșova1,6725,57213,32459,000196,800470,500
Veliko Gradište1,4615,55014,15251,600196,000499,800
Pančevo1,4545,31013,08051,300188,000462,000
Bogojevo9592,8898,15333,900102,000287,900
Bezdan,Batina7492,3537,04326,50083,100248,700
Mohács6672,3367,22723,60082,500255,200
Nagymaros,Szob6282,3337,05722,20082,400249,200
Bratislava6332,0597,32422,40072,700258,600
Vienna5061,9176,06217,90067,700214,100
Krems an der Donau5961,8455,98621,00065,200211,400
Linz4681,4514,78316,50051,200168,900
Hofkirchen2116381,9437,50022,50068,600
Regensburg1284441,3304,50015,70047,000
Ingolstadt833129652,90011,00034,100
Ulm6381532101,3005,400

Simulated water and suspended sediment results from climate-driven decadal study (withSTD through specific decade):[30]

P – Simulated averageprecipitation in the Danube basin;T – Simulated averagetemperature in the Danube basin;Q – Simulated averagedischarge in the Danube River at delta;S – Simulatedsediment load in the Danube River atdelta;

Period (CE)ScenarioPTQS
mmin°C°Fm3/scu ft/smetric tons
(millions)		short tons
(millions)
LIA
1530–1540Cool/dry79431.39.048.26,207219,20072.980.4
1650–1660Cool/wet88534.88.447.17,929280,00067.374.2
1709–1719Warm/wet86133.98.346.97,616269,00052.958.3
1770–1780Warm/dry86534.18.948.07,728272,90074.181.7
Modern
1940–1950Cool/dry77830.68.948.07,209254,60055.060.6
1960–1970Cool/wet850338.847.87,399261,30073.080.5
1975–1985Warm/wet81832.29.048.27,186253,80077.885.8
1990–2000Warm/dry790319.549.15,068179,00073.881.4

Discharge chronology

[edit]

Historical average flow to the present day; Measured and reconstructed average water flows from 1742.The reconstructed and observed streamflow (Q – m3/s) atCeatal Izmail for the 1742 to 2022:[31][32][33][34][28]

Yearm3/scu ft/sYearm3/scu ft/sYearm3/scu ft/sYearm3/scu ft/sYearm3/scu ft/sYearm3/scu ft/s
Reconstructed
17425,780204,00017516,760239,00017616,470228,00017719,700340,00017815,830206,00017915,540196,000
17435,355189,10017527,090250,00017626,510230,00017726,050214,00017826,470228,00017926,930245,000
17445,370190,00017534,980176,00017635,950210,00017734,600160,00017837,930280,00017937,800280,000
17454,940174,00017546,330224,00017646,280222,00017746,150217,00017848,400300,00017945,230185,000
17467,140252,00017556,840242,00017656,130216,00017756,060214,00017857,610269,00017956,530231,000
17475,850207,00017566,370225,00017668,530301,00017766,320223,00017866,570232,00017966,460228,000
17486,840242,00017576,830241,00017676,850242,00017775,530195,00017876,980246,00017976,700240,000
17496,690236,00017588,410297,00017688,400300,00017787,470264,00017885,860207,00017986,560232,000
17505,180183,00017595,520195,00017695,720202,00017796,600230,00017897,190254,00017999,590339,000
17606,840242,000177010,700380,00017806,990247,00017906,940245,00018006,150217,000
5,905 (208,500)6,597 (233,000)7,154 (252,600)6,547 (231,200)6,978 (246,400)6,749 (238,300)
18017,310258,00018118,220290,00018216,390226,00018316,670236,00018416,210219,00018517,350260,000
18026,590233,00018125,230185,00018225,700200,00018324,820170,00018425,340189,00018526,550231,000
18036,870243,00018136,680236,00018236,520230,00018335,350189,00018436,710237,00018537,800280,000
18046,220220,00018147,290257,00018246,420227,00018346,470228,00018446,960246,00018545,060179,000
18057,010248,00018156,640234,00018258,040284,00018357,040249,00018457,440263,00018557,020248,000
18066,830241,00018168,090286,00018265,800200,00018369,740344,00018466,750238,00018565,390190,000
18077,000250,00018178,650305,00018276,650235,00018376,770239,00018477,070250,00018574,880172,000
18085,600200,00018186,920244,00018288,140287,000183810,440369,00018485,620198,00018585,580197,000
18097,150252,00018196,470228,00018298,280292,00018399,960352,00018495,360189,00018595,630199,000
18108,430298,00018206,560232,00018307,790275,00018405,560196,00018507,360260,00018607,220255,000
6,901 (243,700)7,075 (249,900)6,973 (246,200)7,282 (257,200)6,482 (228,900)6,248 (220,600)
18615,980211,00018718,860313,00018818,320294,00018915,440192,00019015,570197,00019115,120181,000
18625,040178,00018725,970211,00018825,130181,00018925,620198,00019025,650200,00019126,940245,000
18633,340118,00018735,150182,00018837,590268,00018935,710202,00019035,490194,00019136,410226,000
18646,150217,00018744,680165,00018845,250185,00018944,770168,00019044,940174,00019146,560232,000
18655,690201,00018755,360189,00018855,430192,00018956,240220,00019056,100220,00019159,540337,000
18663,780133,00018767,520266,00018865,660200,00018966,470228,00019066,190219,00019167,550267,000
18676,350224,00018776,660235,00018875,340189,00018977,700270,00019076,770239,00019176,410226,000
18685,660200,00018787,040249,00018886,800240,00018984,550161,00019084,400160,00019184,300150,000
18695,370190,00018798,300290,00018896,530231,00018994,500160,00019095,590197,00019197,410262,000
18707,470264,00018805,660200,00018904,650164,00019006,900240,00019107,450263,00019206,720237,000
5,483 (193,600)6,520 (230,000)6,070 (214,000)5,790 (204,000)5,815 (205,400)6,770 (239,000)
Observed
19213,906137,90019316,706236,80019419,916350,20019516,368224,90019615,860207,00019715,272186,200
19226,530231,00019326,181218,30019427,266256,60019525,850207,00019626,628234,10019726,160218,000
19236,430227,00019336,344224,00019434,308152,10019536,117216,00019636,047213,50019735,766203,600
19246,700240,00019345,644199,30019447,190254,00019546,168217,80019645,259185,70019747,258256,300
19255,255185,60019355,718201,90019455,870207,00019558,834312,00019658,400300,00019757,190254,000
19268,144287,60019366,392225,70019464,684165,40019567,100250,00019667,954280,90019766,567231,900
19275,990212,00019378,325294,00019475,418191,30019576,254220,90019677,500260,00019777,073249,800
19285,005176,70019386,867242,50019486,357224,50019586,340224,00019685,660200,00019787,120251,000
19295,330188,00019396,310223,00019494,301151,90019595,375189,80019697,710272,00019797,747273,600
19305,197183,50019409,533336,70019505,130181,00019606,514230,00019709,602339,10019808,767309,600
5,888 (207,900)6,802 (240,200)6,044 (213,400)6,492 (229,300)7,062 (249,400)6,892 (243,400)
19818,172288,60019916,274221,60020016,304.3222,63020115,303187,30020216,018212,500
19826,700240,00019925,710.8201,67020026,837.1241,45020125,053178,40020225,753203,200
19835,543195,70019934,873172,10020035,021177,30020137,164253,00020236,623.8233,920
19846,325223,40019946,031.8213,01020046,524230,40020147,446263,0002024
19856,449227,70019956,223.7219,79020058,711307,60020156,138216,8002025
19866,257221,00019967,035.8248,47020068,428297,60020166,465228,3002026
19876,619233,70019976,684.2236,05020075,626198,70020175,202183,7002027
19886,383225,40019986,804.6240,30020085,909208,70020186,487.8229,1102028
19895,448192,40019997,951.5280,80020096,492229,30020195,579197,0002029
19904,194148,10020006,580.6232,39020109,598339,00020204,893.5172,8102030
6,209 (219,300)6,417 (226,600)6,945 (245,300)5,973 (210,900)6,131.6 (216,540)
Multiannual average discharge 1742 to 2022: ~6,500 m3/s (230,000 cu ft/s)

Tributaries

[edit]
TheTisza is the longest tributary of the Danube.
Main article:List of tributaries of the Danube

The land drained by the Danube extends into many other countries. Many Danubian tributaries are important rivers in their own right, navigable by barges and other shallow-draught boats. From its source to its outlet into the Black Sea, its main tributaries are (as they enter):

  1. Iller (entering atUlm)
  2. Lech
  3. Altmühl (entering atKelheim)
  4. Naab (entering atRegensburg)
  5. Regen (entering atRegensburg)
  6. Isar
  7. Inn (entering atPassau)
  8. Ilz (entering atPassau)
  9. Enns
  10. Morava (entering nearDevín Castle)
  11. Rába (entering atGyőr)
  12. Váh (entering atKomárno)
  13. Hron (entering atŠtúrovo)
  14. Ipeľ
  15. Sió
  16. Drava (entering nearOsijek)
  17. Vuka (entering atVukovar)

18.Tisza (entering nearTitel)
19.Sava (entering atBelgrade)
20.Timiș (river) (entering atPančevo)
21.Great Morava (entering nearSmederevo)
22.Mlava (entering nearKostolac)
23.Karaš (entering nearBanatska Palanka)
24.Jiu (entering atBechet)
25.Iskar (entering nearGigen)
26.Olt (entering atTurnu Măgurele)
27.Osam (entering nearNikopol, Bulgaria)
28.Yantra (entering nearSvishtov)
29.Argeș (entering atOltenița)
30.Ialomița
31.Siret (entering nearGalați)
32.Prut (entering nearGalați)

Cities and towns

[edit]
3-color confluence of (from left to right)Inn, Danube, andIlz inPassau
Main article:List of cities and towns on the Danube river

The Danube flows through many cities, including four national capitals (shown below in bold), more than any other river in the world. Ordered from the source to the mouth they are:

Danube inLinz, Austria
The Danube inBratislava, Slovakia
Basilica ofEsztergom,Hungary
Petrovaradin Fortress overlooking the Danube andNovi Sad, regional capital ofVojvodina inSerbia
Confluence of riverSava into the Danube beneathFortress inBelgrade, capital ofSerbia
Danube atNikopol, Bulgaria in winter
The Danube inSulina,Romania
Panorama of the Danube in Vienna
TheDanube Bend is a curve of the Danube inHungary, near the city ofVisegrád. TheTransdanubian Mountains lie on the right bank (left side of the picture), while theNorth Hungarian Mountains on the left bank (right side of the picture).
Panorama of the Danube in Budapest with the Hungarian Parliament (left)
Budapest at night
Panorama of the Danube inNovi Sad fromPetrovaradin Fortress,Serbia
The confluence of theSava into the Danube atBelgrade. Pictured fromBelgrade Fortress,Serbia
Panoramic image of the Danube and Sava river fromKalemegdan, BelgradeSerbia
The Danube entering theIron Gate at the South-Western end of theCarpathian Mountains. Romania on the left side,Golubac Fortress and Serbia on the right side.

Islands

[edit]
Further information:List of islands in the Danube
Aerial view ofMargaret Island,Budapest, Hungary. There are 15 bridges over the Danube in Budapest.
Great War Island in Belgrade, Serbia. It is located at the confluence of theSava and Danube.
TheAda Kaleh island in the Danube was forgotten during the peace talks at theCongress of Berlin in 1878, which allowed it to remain ade jure Turkish territory and the Ottoman SultanAbdul Hamid II's private possession until theTreaty of Lausanne in 1923 (de facto untilRomania unilaterally declared its sovereignty on the island in 1919 and further strengthened it with theTreaty of Trianon in 1920).[35][36] The island was submerged during the construction of theIron Gates hydroelectric plant in 1970.

Sectioning

[edit]
  • Upper Section: From spring toDevín Gate, at the border of Austria and Slovakia. Danube remains a characteristic mountain river untilPassau, with average bottom gradient 0.12% (1200 ppm), from Passau to Devín Gate the gradient lessens to 0.06% (600 ppm).
  • Middle Section: From Devín Gate toIron Gate, at the border of Serbia and Romania. The riverbed widens and the average bottom gradient becomes only 0.006% (60 ppm).
  • Lower Section: From Iron Gate toSulina, with average gradient as little as 0.003% (30 ppm).

Modern navigation

[edit]
[icon]
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The Danube inBudapest
Fisherman in theDanube Delta
Freight ship on the Danube nearVienna

The Danube is navigable by ocean ships from the Black Sea toBrăila in Romania (the maritime river sector), and further on by river ships toKelheim,Bavaria, Germany; smaller craft can navigate further upstream toUlm,Württemberg, Germany. About 60 of its tributaries are also navigable.

Since the completion of the GermanRhine–Main–Danube Canal in 1992, the river has been part of a trans-European waterway fromRotterdam on theNorth Sea toSulina on the Black Sea, a distance of 3,500 km (2,200 mi). In 1994 the Danube was declared one of tenPan-European transport corridors, routes in Central and Eastern Europe that required major investment over the following ten to fifteen years.[citation needed] The amount of goods transported on the Danube increased to about 100 million tons in 1987. In 1999, transport on the river was made difficult by theNATO bombing of three bridges in Serbia during theKosovo War. Clearance of the resulting debris was completed in 2002, and a temporarypontoon bridge that hampered navigation was removed in 2005.[citation needed]

At theIron Gate, the Danube flows through agorge that forms part of the boundary between Serbia and Romania; it contains theIron Gate I Hydroelectric Power Station dam, followed at about 60 km (37 mi) downstream (outside the gorge) by theIron Gate II Hydroelectric Power Station. On 13 April 2006, a record peak discharge at Iron Gate Dam reached 15,400 m3/s (540,000 cu ft/s).

There are three artificial waterways built on the Danube: theDanube-Tisa-Danube Canal (DTD) in theBanat andBačka regions (Vojvodina, northern province of Serbia); the 64 km (40 mi)Danube-Black Sea Canal, betweenCernavodă andConstanța (Romania) finished in 1984, shortens the distance to the Black Sea by 400 km (250 mi); theRhine–Main–Danube Canal is about 171 km (106 mi), finished in 1992, linking the North Sea to the Black Sea.[37] A Danube-Aegean canal has been proposed.[38]

Cruising on the Danube is a popular sightseeing activity, especially betweenPassau, Germany, toBudapest, Hungary.[39]

Piracy

[edit]

In 2010–12, shipping companies, especially from Ukraine, claimed that their vessels suffered from "regularpirate attacks" on the Serbian and the Romanian stretches of the Danube.[40][41][42] However, the transgressions may not be considered acts of piracy, as defined according to theUnited Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, but rather instances of "river robbery".[43]

On the other hand, media reports say the crews on transport ships often steal and sell their own cargo and then blame the plundering on "pirates", and the alleged attacks are not piracy but small-timecontraband theft along the river.[44]

Danube Delta

[edit]
Main article:Danube Delta
Russian-speakingLipovans in the Danube Delta

The Danube Delta (Romanian:Delta Dunăriipronounced[ˈdeltaˈdunərij];Ukrainian:Дельта Дунаю,romanized: Del'ta Dunayu) is the largestriver delta in theEuropean Union. The greater part of the Danube Delta lies in Romania (Tulcea county), while its northern part, on the left bank of the Chilia arm, is situated in Ukraine (Odesa Oblast). The approximate surface is 4,152 km2 (1,603 sq mi), of which 3,446 km2 (1,331 sq mi) are in Romania. If one includes the lagoons ofRazim-Sinoe (1,015 km2 (392 sq mi) of which 865 km2 (334 sq mi) water surface), which are located south of the delta proper, but are related to it geologically and ecologically (their combined territory is part of the World Heritage Site), the total area of the Danube Delta reaches 5,165 km2 (1,994 sq mi).

The Danube Delta is also the best-preserved river delta in Europe, aUNESCO World Heritage Site (since 1991) and aRamsar Site. Its lakes and marshes support 45 freshwater fish species. Its wetlands support vast flocks of migratory birds of over 300 species, including the endangeredpygmy cormorant (Phalacrocorax pygmaeus). These are threatened by rival canalization and drainage schemes such as theBystroye Canal.[45]

International cooperation

[edit]

Ecology and environment

[edit]
Main article:International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River
Pelicans in the Danube Delta, Romania

The International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River (ICPDR) is an organization that consists of 14 member states (Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungary, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Montenegro, and Ukraine) and theEuropean Union. The commission, established in 1998, deals with the whole Danube river basin, which includes tributaries and groundwater resources. Its goal is to implement the Danube River Protection Convention by promoting and coordinating sustainable and equitable water management, including conservation, improvement, and rational use of waters and the implementation of the EUWater Framework Directive and theDanube Strategy.

Navigation

[edit]
Main article:Danube Commission

The Danube Commission is concerned with the maintenance and improvement of the river's navigation conditions. It was established in 1948 by seven countries bordering the river. Members include representatives from Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Germany, Hungary, Moldova, Slovakia, Romania, Russia, Ukraine, and Serbia; it meets regularly twice a year. It also convenes groups of experts to consider items provided for in the commission's working plans.

The commission dates to the Paris Conferences of 1856 and 1921, which established for the first time an international regime to safeguard free navigation on the Danube. Today the Commission include riparian and non-riparian states.

Geology

[edit]
Iron Gates, Serbia-Romania border
Iron Gate II Hydroelectric Power Station, Romania-Serbia

Although theheadwaters of the Danube are relatively small today, geologically, the Danube is much older than theRhine, with which its catchment area competes in today's southern Germany. This has a few interesting geological complications. Since the Rhine flows north towards the North Sea, acontinental divide beginning atPiz Lunghin divides large parts of southern Germany, which is sometimes referred to as theEuropean Watershed.

Before the lastice age in thePleistocene, the Rhine started at the southwestern tip of the Black Forest, while the waters from the Alps that today feed the Rhine were carried east by the so-calledUrdonau (original Danube). Parts of this ancient river's bed, which was much larger than today's Danube, can still be seen in (now waterless) canyons in today's landscape of theSwabian Alb. The erosion of theUpper Rhine valley led tostream capture; waters from the Alps changed their direction and began feeding the Rhine. Today's upper Danube is thus anunderfit stream.

TheIron Gate, on the Serbian-Romanian border (Iron Gates natural park andĐerdap national park)

Since the Swabian Alb is largely shaped of porouslimestone, and since the Rhine's level is much lower than the Danube's, today subsurface rivers carry much water from the Danube to the Rhine. On many days in the summer, when the Danube carries little water, it completely sinks into these underground channels at two locations in the Swabian Alb, which are referred to as the Donauversickerung (Danube Sink). Most of this water resurfaces only 12 km (7.5 mi) south at theAachtopf, Germany's wellspring with the highest flow, an average of 8,500 L/s (300 cu ft/s), north ofLake Constance—thus feeding the Rhine. The European Water Divide applies only for those waters that pass beyond this point, which only occurs during the days of the year when the Danube carries enough water to survive the sinkholes in the Donauversickerung.

Since such large volumes of underground water erode much of the surrounding limestone, it is predicted that the Danube upper course will one day disappear entirely in favor of the Rhine, an event calledstream capturing.

The hydrological parameters of Danube are regularly monitored in Croatia atBatina,Dalj,Vukovar andIlok.[46]

History

[edit]
Combat between Russian and Turkish forces on the Danube in 1854, during theCrimean War (1853–1856)

The Danube basin was the site of some of the earliest human cultures. TheDanubian Neolithic cultures include theLinear Pottery cultures of the mid-Danube basin. Many sites of the sixth-to-third millennium BCEVinča culture (Vinča, Serbia), are sited along the Danube. The third millennium BCEVučedol culture (from the Vučedol site nearVukovar,Croatia) is famous for its ceramics.

Darius the Great,king of Persia, crossed the river in the late 6th century BCE toinvade European Scythia and to subdue theScythians.

Alexander the Great defeated the Triballian kingSyrmus and the northern barbarian Thracian and Illyrian tribes by advancing from Macedonia as far as the Danube in 336 BCE.

Under the Romans, the Danube formed the border of the Empire with the tribes to the north almost from its source to its mouth. At the same time, it was a route for the transport of troops and the supply of settlements downstream. From 37 CE to the reign of the EmperorValentinian I (364–375) theDanubian Limes was the northeastern border of the Empire, with occasional interruptions such as the fall of the Danubian Limes in 259. The crossing of the Danube intoDacia was achieved by theImperium Romanum, first in two battles in 102 and then in 106 after the construction of a bridge in 101 near the garrison town ofDrobeta at the Iron Gate. This victory over Dacia underDecebalus enabled the Province ofDacia to be created, but in 271 it was abandoned by emperorAurelian.

Avars used the river as their southeastern border in the 6th century.

Ancient cultural perspectives of the lower Danube

[edit]

Part of the rivers Danubius or Istros was also known as (together with the Black Sea) theOkeanos in ancient times, being called theOkeanos Potamos (Okeanos River). The lower Danube was also called theKeras Okeanoio (Gulf or Horn of Okeanos) in theArgonautica byApollonius Rhodos (Argon. IV. 282).

At the end of theOkeanos Potamos, is the holy island of Alba (Leuke, Pytho Nisi,Isle of Snakes), sacred to the Pelasgian (and later, Greek) Apollo, greeting the sun rising in the east.Hecateus Abderitas refers to Apollo's island from the region of the Hyperboreans, in the Okeanos. It was on Leuke, in one version of his legend, that the hero Achilles was buried (to this day, one of the mouths of the Danube is called Chilia). Old Romanian folk songs recount a white monastery on a white island with nine priests.[47]

Rivalry along the Danube

[edit]
This sectiondoes notcite anysources. Please helpimprove this section byadding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged andremoved.(February 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
TheHoly League tookOttoman-heldBuda after a longsiege in 1686.

Between the late 14th and late 19th centuries, theOttoman Empire competed first with theKingdom of Serbia,Second Bulgarian Empire,Kingdom of Hungary,Principality of Wallachia,Principality of Moldavia and later with theHabsburg monarchy,Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, andRussian Empire for controlling the Danube (طونه,Tuna inTurkish), which became the northern border of the Ottoman Empire for centuries. Many of theOttoman–Hungarian Wars (1366–1526) andOttoman–Habsburg wars (1526–1791) were fought along the river.

The most importantwars of the Ottoman Empire along the Danube include theBattle of Nicopolis (1396), theSiege of Belgrade (1456), theBattle of Mohács (1526), the first TurkishSiege of Vienna (1529), theSiege of Esztergom (1543), theLong War (1591–1606), theBattle of Vienna (1683), theGreat Turkish War (1683–1699), theCrimean War (1853–1856) and theRusso-Turkish War (1877–1878).

Second World War

[edit]

During the 2011 renovation of theMargaret Bridge,Budapest, human remains were discovered. The mostly Jewish remains were victims of thefar-rightArrow Cross Party, who briefly governed Hungary from 1944.[48]

Economics

[edit]

Drinking water

[edit]

Along its course, the Danube is a source of drinking water for about 20 million people.[49][50] InBaden-Württemberg,Germany, almost 30 percent (as of 2004) of the water for the area betweenStuttgart,Bad Mergentheim,Aalen andAlb-Donau (district) comes from purified water of the Danube. Other cities such asUlm andPassau also use some water from the Danube.

InAustria andHungary, most water is drawn from ground and spring sources, and only in rare cases is water from the Danube used. Most states also find it too difficult to clean the water because of extensive pollution; only parts of Romania where the water is cleaner still obtain drinking water from the Danube on a regular basis.[51]

Navigation and transport

[edit]
Fishing from a Zille on the Danube in Lower Austria, 1982

In the 19th century, the Danube was an important waterway but was, asThe Times of London put it, "annually swept by ice that will lift a large ship out of the water or cut her in two as if she were a carrot."[52]

Today, as"Corridor VII" of theEuropean Union, the Danube is an important transport route. Since the opening of theRhine–Main–Danube Canal, the river connects thePort of Rotterdam and the industrial centers of Western Europe with theBlack Sea and, also, through theDanube – Black Sea Canal, with thePort of Constanța.

The waterway is designed for large-scale inland vessels (110 × 11.45 m) but it can carry much larger vessels on most of its course. The Danube has been partly canalized in Germany (5 locks) and Austria (10 locks). Proposals to build a number of new locks to improve navigation have not progressed, due in part to environmental concerns.

Downstream from theFreudenau locks in Vienna, canalization of the Danube was limited to theGabčíkovo dam and locks near Bratislava and the two doubleIron Gate locks in the border stretch of the Danube between Serbia and Romania. These locks have larger dimensions. Downstream of the Iron Gate, the river is free flowing all the way to the Black Sea, a distance of more than 860 kilometres (530 mi).

The Danube connects with the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal atKelheim, with theDonaukanal in Vienna, and with the Danube–Black Sea Canal atCernavodă.

Apart from a couple of secondary navigable branches, the only major navigable rivers linked to the Danube are theDrava,Sava andTisa. In Serbia, a canal network also connects to the river; the network, known as theDanube–Tisa–Danube Canals, links sections downstream.

In the Austrian and German sections of the Danube, a type of flat-bottomed boat called aZille was developed for use along the river. Zillen are still used today for fishing, ferrying, and other transport of goods and people in this area.

Fishing

[edit]

The importance of fishing on the Danube, which was critical in theMiddle Ages, has declined dramatically. Some fishermen are still active at certain points on the river, and theDanube Delta still has an important industry. However, some of the river's resources have been managed in an environmentally unsustainable manner in the past, leading to damage by pollution, alterations to the channel, and major infrastructure development, including large hydropower dams.[53]

Thesturgeon stocks associated with the Danube River basin have, over the centuries, formed the basis of a large and significant commercial fishery, renowned throughout the world. The construction of the dams, besides overfishing and river pollution, has a significant role in sturgeon population decline because it creates a barrier for fish migratory species that usually spawn in the upper parts of the river.[54] The spawning areas of migratory fishes species has been dramatically reduced by the construction of hydropower and navigation systems at Iron Gates I (1974) and Iron Gates II (1984).[55] The initial design of these dams has not included any fish passage facility.[56] The possibility of building a human-madefish pass enabling migration for fish species including the sturgeon, is currently under review by projects such as We Pass.[57]

The Upper Danubeecoregion alone has about 60 fish species and the Lower Danube–Dniester ecoregion has about twice as many.[58] Among these are an exceptionally high diversity of sturgeon, a total of six species (beluga,Russian sturgeon,bastard sturgeon,sterlet,starry sturgeon andEuropean sea sturgeon), but these are all threatened and have largely–or entirely in the case of the European sea sturgeon–disappeared from the river.[58] Thehuchen, one of the largest species of salmon, isendemic to the Danube basin, but has beenintroduced elsewhere by humans.[59]

Tourism

[edit]
The ruins ofAggstein Castle above the Danube
Wachau Valley nearSpitz, Austria

Important tourist and natural spots along the Danube include theWachau Valley, theNationalpark Donau-Auen in Austria,Gemenc in Hungary, theNaturpark Obere Donau in Germany,Kopački rit in Croatia,Iron Gate in Serbia and Romania, theDanube Delta in Romania, and theSrebarna Nature Reserve in Bulgaria.

Also, leisure and travel cruises on the river are of significance. Besides the often frequented route between Vienna and Budapest, some ships even go fromPassau in Germany to theDanube Delta and back. During the peak season, more than 70 cruise liners are in use on the river, while the traffic-free upper parts can only be discovered with canoes or boats.

The Danube region is not only culturally and historically of importance, but also important for the regional tourism industry due to its fascinating landmarks and sights. With its well established infrastructure regarding cycling, hiking, and travel possibilities, the region along the Danube attracts every year an international clientele. In Austria alone, there are more than 14 million overnight stays and about 6.5 million arrivals per year.[60]

The Danube Banks inBudapest are a part of Unesco World Heritage sites, they can be viewed from a number of sightseeing cruises offered in the city.

The Danube Bend is also a popular tourist destination.

Danube Bike Trail

[edit]
The Danube Bike Trail running along theSchlögener Schlinge
The Danube Bike Trail leading through the city ofLinz

TheDanube Bike Trail (also called Danube Cycle Path or theDonauradweg) is a bicycle trail along the river. Especially the parts through Germany and Austria are very popular, which makes it one of the 10 most popular bike trails in Germany.[61]

The Danube Bike Trail starts at the origin of the Danube and ends where the river flows into the Black Sea. It is divided into four sections:

  1. Donaueschingen–Passau (559 km or 347 mi)
  2. Passau–Vienna (340 km or 210 mi)
  3. Vienna–Budapest (306 km or 190 mi)
  4. Budapest–Black Sea (1,670 km or 1,040 mi)

Sultans Trail

[edit]

TheSultans Trail is a hiking trail that runs along the river betweenVienna andSmederevo in Serbia. From there the Sultans Trail leaves the Danube, terminating inIstanbul. Sections along the river are as follows.

  1. Vienna–Budapest (323 km or 201 mi)
  2. Budapest–Smederevo (595 km or 370 mi)

Donausteig

[edit]
Resting area along theDonausteig hiking trail nearBad Kreuzen

In 2010, theDonausteig, a hiking trail from Passau toGrein, was opened. It is 450 km (280 mi) long and it is divided into 23 stages. The route passes through five Bavarian and 40 Austrian communities. A landscape and viewpoints, which are along the river, are the highlights of theDonausteig.[62]

The Route of Emperors and Kings

[edit]

The Route of Emperors and Kings is an international touristic route leading fromRegensburg to Budapest, calling in Passau, Linz and Vienna.[63] The international consortiumARGE Die Donau-Straße der Kaiser und Könige, comprising ten tourism organisations, shipping companies, and cities, strives for the conservation and touristic development of the Danube region.[60]

In medieval Regensburg, with its maintained old town,stone bridge andcathedral, the Route of Emperors and Kings begins. It continues toEngelhartszell, with the onlyTrappist monastery in Austria. Further highlight-stops along the Danube, include the "Schlögener Schlinge", the city of Linz, which wasEuropean Capital of Culture in 2009 with its contemporary art richness, theMelk Abbey, the university city ofKrems and the cosmopolitan city of Vienna. Before the Route of Emperors and Kings ends, you pass Bratislava and Budapest, the latter of which was seen as the twin town of Vienna during the times of theAustro-Hungarian Empire.Sinceancient Roman times, famous emperors and their retinue traveled on and along the Danube and used the river for travel and transportation. While traveling on the mainland was quite exhausting, most people preferred to travel by ship on the Danube. So the Route of Emperors and Kings was the setting for many important historical events, which characterize the Danube up until today.

The route got its name from theHoly Roman Emperor Frederick I of Barbarossa and thecrusaders as well as fromRichard I of England who had been jailed in theDürnstein Castle, which is situated above the Danube. The most imperial journeys throughout time were those of theHabsburg family. Once crowned inFrankfurt, the emperors ruled from Vienna and also held in Regensburg thePerpetual Diet of Regensburg. Many famous castles, palaces, residences, and state-run convents were built by the Habsburger along the river. Nowadays they still remind us of the bold architecture of the "Donaubarock".

Today, people can not only travel by boat on the Danube but also by train, by bike on the Danube Bike Trail or walk on the "Donausteig" and visit theUNESCO World Heritage cities of Regensburg,Wachau and Vienna.[64]

Important national parks

[edit]

In popular culture

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16th-century Danube landscape nearRegensburg, byAlbrecht Altdorfer – a member of the Danube school

See also

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Portals:

Further reading

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  • Lóczy, Dénes. The Danube: Morphology, Evolution, and Environmental Issues. In Avijit Gupta, ed., Large Rivers: Geomorphology and Management. 2nd Ed. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2022, pp. 335–367. ISBN 9781119412601
  • Sommerwerk, Nike, Jurg Bloesch, Christian Baumgartner, Thomas Bittl, Dubravka Cerba, Bela Csanyi, Grigore Davideanu, Martin Dokulil, Georg Frank, Iulia Grecu, Thomas Hein, Vladimir Kovac, Ilulian Nichersu, Tibor Mikuska, Karin Pall, Momir Paunovic, Carmen Postolache, Maja Rakovic, Cristina Sandu, Martin Schneider-Jacoby, Katharina Stefke, Klement Tockner, Ion Toderas, and Laurentia Ungureanu. The Danube River Basin. In Klement Tockner, Christiane Zarfl, and Christopher T. Robinson (eds.), Rivers of Europe, 2nd Ed. Cambridge, MA: Elsevier, 2022, pp. 83–181. ISBN 978-0-08-102612-0

References

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  4. ^abcdef"ICPDR".
  5. ^"Republic Hydrometeorological Service of Serbia".
  6. ^abGâştescu, Petre; Țuchiu, Elena (2012), Gâştescu, Petre; Lewis William Jr, William; Breţcan, Petre (eds.),"The Danube River in the Pontic Sector – Hidrologycal Regime"(PDF),Water resources and wetlands: Conference Proceedings, Tulcea, Romania, p. 18,ISBN 978-606-605-038-8
  7. ^abcdefg"THE DANUBE RIVER AND ITS DELTA, HYDROGEOGRAPHYC CHARACTERISTICS-ACTUAL SYNTHESIS".
  8. ^ab"Points of view expressed by the Romanian authorities and scientific research on the Ukraine's document "Annotated Report on Scientific Research – Complex Environmental Monitoring for the Danube – Black Sea Deep Water Navigation Canal operation in 2017–2018. The Sea Approach Canal Zone""(PDF). unece.org. Retrieved30 April 2022.
  9. ^"Herodotus, The Histories, book 4, chapter 48".www.perseus.tufts.edu.
  10. ^abcdFelecan, Oliviu; Felecan, Nicolae (2015)."Straturi etimologice reflectate în hidronimia românească"(PDF).Quaderns de Filologia: Estudis Lingüístics.20 (1). Universitat de València: 254.doi:10.7203/qfilologia.20.7521.
  11. ^Dyer, Robert (1974). "Matoas, the Thraco-Phrygian name for the Danube, and the IE root *madų".Glotta.52 (1/2). Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht (GmbH & Co. KG):91–95.JSTOR 40266286.
  12. ^Šašel Kos, Marjeta (2009). "Reka kot božanstvo — Sava v antiki" [River as a Deity – The Sava in Antiquity]. In Barachini, Jožef (ed.).Ukročena lepotica: Sava in njene zgodbe [The Tamed Beauty: The Sava and Its Stories](PDF) (in Slovenian and English). Sevnica: Javni zavod za kulturo, šport, turizem in mladinske dejavnosti. pp. 42–50.ISBN 978-961-92735-0-0. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 4 March 2016.
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  14. ^abcdeVékony, Gábor (2000).Dacians, Romans, Romanians. Matthias Corvinus Publishing. p. 210.ISBN 978-1-882785-13-1.
  15. ^Kozma Vasili; Arsen Mustaqi, eds. (1981),Lirika popullore [Folk lyrics], Folklor Shqiptar (in Albanian), vol. 4, Tirana:Akademia e Shkencave e RPS te Shqiperise,Instituti i Kultures Popullore, Sektori i Prozes dhe Poezise, p. 624,Tunë-a lumi i Danubit
  16. ^Triad 35. Bromwich,Trioedd Ynys Prydein, pp. 280–285.
  17. ^Mallory, J.P;Mair, Victor H. (2000).The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West. London: Thames and Hudson. p. 106.ISBN 978-0-500-05101-6..V. I. Adaev (1949).Осетинский язык и фольклор [Ossetian language and folklore](PDF) (in Russian). Moscow: Publishing house of Soviet Academy of Sciences. p. 236.
  18. ^Ancient Languages of the Balkans, Part One. Paris: Mouton. 1976. p. 144.
  19. ^Tonaw inSebastian Franck (1542).Weltbuch. p. 81.Donaw e.g. inLeonhard Thurneisser zum Thurn (1572).Pison. p. 186. SpellingDonau from the 17th century.
  20. ^Grimm.Deutsche Grammatik. p. 407.
  21. ^abc"Countries of the Danube River Basin". International Commission for the protection of the Danube River. Retrieved13 November 2010.
  22. ^Complete table of the Bavarian Waterbody Register by the Bavarian State Office for the Environment (xls, 10.3 MB)
  23. ^"Danube River Basin District, Part A - Roof Report"(PDF).ICPDR. April 2004. p. 12.
  24. ^ab"River Basin | ICPDR – International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River".www.icpdr.org.
  25. ^"Drainage basin of the Black Sea"(PDF).Our Waters: Joining Hands Across Borders. First Assessment of Transboundary Rivers, Lakes and Groundwaters.United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. 2007.
  26. ^"Republički hidrometeorološki zavod".
  27. ^"ICPDR-International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River".
  28. ^ab"DIAGNOZA ŞI PROGNOZA PENTRU DUNĂRE".
  29. ^Pekárová, Pavla; Miklánek, Pavol (2019).Flood Regime of Rivers in the Danube River Basin.doi:10.31577/2019.9788089139460.ISBN 978-80-89139-46-0.S2CID 131234947.
  30. ^McCarney-Castle, K.; Voulgaris, G.; Kettner, A.J.; Giosan, L. (2021). "Simulating fluvial fluxes in the Danube watershed: The "Little Ice Age" versus modern day".The Holocene.22:91–105.doi:10.1177/0959683611409778.S2CID 129864432.
  31. ^Nagaviciuc, Viorica; Roibu, Cătălin-Constantin; Mursa, Andrei; Ştirbu, Marian-Ionuţ; Popa, Ionel; Ionita, Monica (2023)."The first tree-ring reconstruction of streamflow variability over the last ~250 years in the Lower Danube".Journal of Hydrology.doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2023.129150.S2CID 256288140.
  32. ^"INHGA".Archived from the original on 16 December 2023.
  33. ^"Annual Reports".ICPDR. Archived fromthe original on 18 April 2023.
  34. ^"IPCC".Archived from the original on 21 December 2023.
  35. ^Treaty of Peace with Turkey signed at Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland: World War I Document Archive, 24 July 1923, retrieved6 December 2014
  36. ^Bondoc, Dorel."Ada Kaleh".The Alexis Project. Archived fromthe original on 25 July 2011. Retrieved6 December 2014.
  37. ^"Danube navigation at a glance".INeS Danube. Archived fromthe original on 26 February 2021.
  38. ^Tzimas, Stavros (28 August 2017)."Chinese interests could make plan to link Danube and Aegean a reality".eKathimerini.com. Retrieved11 July 2022.
  39. ^Sarna, Heidi (15 August 2019)."10 Best River Cruises".Frommer's.Archived from the original on 21 September 2023.
  40. ^Piškor, Mate (12 October 2011)."Riječni gusari u Srbiji pljačkaju hrvatske brodove".Jutarnji list (in Croatian). Archived fromthe original on 1 March 2020.
  41. ^"Ukrainian Danube Shipping Company Says Its Ships Are Being Attacked Frequently in Romanian Part Of River Danube". Ukrainian News. 13 January 2012. Archived fromthe original on 14 January 2012. Retrieved11 June 2012.
  42. ^Гордієва, Олена (20 January 2012)."Українські кораблі все частіше стають жертвами румунських піратів" [Romanian Pirates Attack Ukrainian Ships More Frequently].Gazeta.ua (in Ukrainian).Archived from the original on 5 April 2023.
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  44. ^Tomiuc, Eugen (5 February 2012)."Reports Of 'Pirates Of The Danube' Get The Old Heave-Ho".Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.Archived from the original on 9 September 2023.
  45. ^Staras, Mircea (2005).Documentation on the likely significant transboundary impact of the Ukrainian deep-water navigation canal Danube-black sea in the context of Espoo Convention, 1991(PDF).Tulcea,Romania: Danube Delta National Institute (published February 2005).Archived(PDF) from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved20 September 2020.
  46. ^"Daily hydrological report".State Hydrometeorological Bureau of the Republic of Croatia. Archived fromthe original on 30 May 2010. Retrieved9 September 2010.
  47. ^Dacia PreistoricaArchived 7 July 2008 at theWayback Machine, Nicolae Densusianu (1913).
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  49. ^"About Us".International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River. Retrieved5 February 2021.
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Notes

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  1. ^Flow sequence from the source confluence inGermany to final discharge into theBlack Sea via theDanube Delta inRomania andUkraine.
    See also Contents >Geography.
  2. ^Note that the port city ofVidin in Bulgaria is downstream from the town ofMoldova Nouă in Romania.

Sources

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External links

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Wikivoyage has a travel guide forDanube.
Wikimedia Commons has media related toDanube.
Wikisource has the text of the1911Encyclopædia Britannica article "Danube".
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Map indicating the Danube
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