Dante chose to write in thevernacular, specifically, his ownTuscan dialect, at a time when much literature was still written in Latin, which was accessible only to educated readers, and many of his fellow Italian poets wrote in French orProvençal. HisDe vulgari eloquentia (On Eloquence in the Vernacular) was one of the first scholarly defenses of the vernacular. His use of theFlorentine dialect for works such asThe New Life (1295) andDivine Comedy helped establish the modern-day standardized Italian language. His work set a precedent that important Italian writers such asPetrarch andBoccaccio would later follow.
Dante was instrumental in establishing the literature of Italy, and is considered to be among the country'snational poets and the Western world's greatest literary icons.[11] His depictions ofHell,Purgatory, andHeaven provided inspiration for the larger body ofWestern art andliterature.[12][13] He influenced English writers such asGeoffrey Chaucer,John Milton, andAlfred Tennyson, among many others. In addition, the first use of the interlocking three-line rhyme scheme, or theterza rima, is attributed to him. He is described as the "father" of the Italian language,[14] and in Italy he is often referred to asil Sommo Poeta ("the Supreme Poet").[15] Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio are also called thetre corone ("three crowns") of Italian literature.
Dante's house museum in Florence. The house has been significantly altered since Dante's time.[16]Alleged Dante portrait attributed toGiotto, in the chapel of theBargello palace, Florence.[17] It was paintedc. 1335 and has been restored.[18]
Dante was born inFlorence,Republic of Florence, in what is now Italy. The exact date of his birth is unknown, although it is believed to be around May 1265.[19][20][21] This can be deduced fromautobiographicallusions in theDivine Comedy. Its first section, theInferno, begins, "Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita" ("Midway upon the journey of our life"), implying that Dante was around 35 years old, since the average lifespan according to the Bible (Psalm 89:10, Vulgate) is 70 years; and since his imaginary travel to the netherworld took place in 1300, he was most probably born around 1265. Some verses of theParadiso section of theDivine Comedy also provide a possible clue that he was born under the sign ofGemini: "As I revolved with the eternal twins, I saw revealed, from hills to river outlets, the threshing-floor that makes us so ferocious" (XXII 151–154). In 1265, the sun was in Gemini between approximately May 11 and June 11 (Julian calendar).[1]
Dante claimed that his family descended from the ancient Romans (Inferno, XV, 76), but the earliest relative he could mention by name was his great-great-grandfatherCacciaguida degli Elisei (Paradiso, XV, 135), born no earlier than about 1100. Dante's father wasAlighiero di Bellincione, a businessman and moneylender,[22] and Dante's mother was Bella, probably a member of the Abati family, a noble Florentine family.[23] She died when Dante was not yet ten years old. Alighiero soon married again, to Lapa di Chiarissimo Cialuffi. It is uncertain whether he really married her, since widowers were socially limited in such matters, but she definitely bore him two children, Dante's half-brother Francesco and half-sister Tana (Gaetana).[23]
During Dante's time, most Northern Italian city states were split into two political factions: theGuelphs, who supported thepapacy, and theGhibellines, who supported theHoly Roman Empire.[24] Dante's family was loyal to the Guelphs. The Ghibellines took over Florence at theBattle of Montaperti in 1260, forcing out many of the Guelphs.[25] Although Dante's family were Guelphs, they suffered no reprisals after the battle, probably because of Alighiero's low public standing.[26] The Guelphs later fought the Ghibellines again in 1266 at the Battle of Benevento, retaking Florence from the Ghibellines.[25][24]
Dante said he first metBeatrice Portinari, daughter ofFolco Portinari, when he was nine (she was eight),[27] and he claimed to have fallen in love with her "at first sight", apparently without even talking with her.[28] When he was 12, however, he was promised in marriage toGemma di Manetto Donati, daughter of Manetto Donati, member of the powerful Donati family.[23] Contracting marriages for children at such an early age was quite common and involved a formal ceremony, including contracts signed before anotary.[23] Dante claimed to have seen Beatrice again frequently after he turned 18, exchanging greetings with her in the streets of Florence, though he never knew her well.[29]
Years after his marriage to Gemma, he claims to have met Beatrice again; he wrote several sonnets to Beatrice but never mentioned Gemma in any of his poems. He refers to other Donati relations, notably Forese and Piccarda, in hisDivine Comedy. The exact date of his marriage is not known; the only certain information is that, before his exile in 1301, he had fathered three children with Gemma (Pietro,Jacopo and Antonia).[23]
Dante fought with the Guelph cavalry at theBattle of Campaldino (June 11, 1289).[30] This victory brought about a reformation of the Florentine constitution. To take part in public life, one had to enroll in one of the city's many commercial or artisan guilds, so Dante entered the Physicians' and Apothecaries' Guild.[31] His name is occasionally recorded as speaking or voting in the councils of the republic. Many minutes from such meetings between 1298 and 1300 were lost, so the extent of his participation is uncertain.
Not much is known about Dante's education; he presumably studied at home or in a chapter school attached to a church or monastery in Florence. It is known that he studiedTuscan poetry and that he admired the compositions of the Bolognese poetGuido Guinizelli—inPurgatorio XXVI he characterized him as his "father"—at a time when theSicilian School (Scuola poetica Siciliana), a cultural group fromSicily, was becoming known in Tuscany. He also discovered theProvençal poetry of thetroubadours, such asArnaut Daniel, and the Latin writers ofclassical antiquity, includingCicero,Ovid and especiallyVirgil.[32]
Dante's interactions with Beatrice set an example of so-calledcourtly love, a phenomenon developed in French and Provençal poetry of prior centuries. Dante's experience of such love was typical, but his expression of it was unique. It was in the name of this love that Dante left his imprint on thedolce stil nuovo ("sweet new style", a term that Dante himself coined), and he would join other contemporary poets and writers in exploring never-before-emphasized aspects of love. Love for Beatrice (asPetrarch would express for Laura somewhat differently) would be his reason for writing poetry and for living, together with political passions. In many of his poems, she is depicted as semi-divine, watching over him constantly and providing spiritual instruction, sometimes harshly. When Beatrice died in 1290, Dante sought refuge in Latin literature.[33] TheConvivio chronicles his having readBoethius'sDe consolatione philosophiae and Cicero'sDe Amicitia.
He next dedicated himself to philosophical studies at religious schools like the Dominican one inSanta Maria Novella. He took part in the disputes that the two principalmendicant orders (Franciscan andDominican) publicly or indirectly held in Florence, the former explaining the doctrines of the mystics and of St.Bonaventure, the latter expounding on the theories of St.Thomas Aquinas.[29]
At around the age of 18, Dante metGuido Cavalcanti,Lapo Gianni,Cino da Pistoia and, soon after,Brunetto Latini; together they became the leaders of thedolce stil nuovo. Brunetto later received special mention in theDivine Comedy (Inferno, XV, 28) for what he had taught Dante: "Nor speaking less on that account I go With Ser Brunetto, and I ask who are his most known and most eminent companions".[34] Some fifty poetical commentaries by Dante are known (the so-calledRime, rhymes), others being included in the laterVita Nuova andConvivio. Other studies are reported, or deduced fromVita Nuova or theComedy, regarding painting and music.[citation needed]
Dante, like most Florentines of his day, was embroiled in theGuelph–Ghibelline conflict. He fought in the Battle of Campaldino (June 11, 1289), with the Florentine Guelphs againstArezzo Ghibellines;[30][35] he fought as afeditore [it], responsible for the first attack.[36] To further his political career, he obtained admission to the Guild of Physicians and Apothecaries around 1295.[37] He likely joined the guild due to association between philosophy and medicine,[38][39][40] but also may have joined as apothecaries were also booksellers.[41][42] His guild membership allowed him to hold public office in Florence.[39] As a politician, he held various offices over some years in a city rife with political unrest.
After defeating the Ghibellines, the Guelphs divided into two factions: the White Guelphs (Guelfi Bianchi)—Dante's party, led by Vieri dei Cerchi—and the Black Guelphs (Guelfi Neri), led byCorso Donati. Although the split was along family lines at first, ideological differences arose based on opposing views of the papal role in Florentine affairs. The Blacks supported the Pope and the Whites wanted more freedom from Rome. The Whites took power first and expelled the Blacks. In response,Pope Boniface VIII planned a military occupation of Florence. In 1301,Charles of Valois, brother of KingPhilip IV of France, was expected to visit Florence because the Pope had appointed him as peacemaker for Tuscany, but the city's government had treated the Pope's ambassadors badly a few weeks before, seeking independence from papal influence. It was believed Charles had received other unofficial instructions, so the council sent a delegation that included Dante to Rome to persuade the Pope not to send Charles to Florence.[43][44]
Pope Boniface quickly dismissed the other delegates and asked Dante alone to remain in Rome. At the same time (November 1, 1301), Charles of Valois entered Florence with the Black Guelphs, who in the next six days destroyed much of the city and killed many of their enemies. A new Black Guelph government was installed, andCante dei Gabrielli daGubbio was appointedpodestà of the city. In March 1302, Dante, a White Guelph by affiliation, along with theGherardini family, was condemned to exile for two years and ordered to pay a large fine.[45] Dante was accused of corruption and financial wrongdoing by the Black Guelphs for the time that Dante was serving as city prior (Florence's highest position) for two months in 1300.[46] The poet was still in Rome in 1302, as the Pope, who had backed the Black Guelphs, had "suggested" that Dante stay there. Florence under the Black Guelphs, therefore, considered Dante an absconder.[47]
Dante did not pay the fine, in part because he believed he was not guilty and in part because all his assets in Florence had been seized by the Black Guelphs. He was condemned to perpetual exile; if he had returned to Florence without paying the fine, he could have been burned at the stake. (In June 2008, nearly seven centuries after his death, the city council of Florence passed a motion rescinding Dante's sentence.)[48] In 1306–07, Dante was a guest ofMoroello Malaspina [it] in the region ofLunigiana.[49]
Dante in Verona, by Antonio Cotti, 1879
Dante took part in several attempts by the White Guelphs to regain power, but these failed due to treachery. Bitter at the treatment he received from his enemies, he grew disgusted with the infighting and ineffectiveness of his former allies and vowed to become a party of one. He went toVerona as a guest ofBartolomeo I della Scala, then moved toSarzana in Liguria. Later he is supposed to have lived inLucca with a woman named Gentucca. She apparently made his stay comfortable (and he later gratefully mentioned her inPurgatorio, XXIV, 37).[50] Some speculative sources claim he visited Paris between 1308 and 1310, and other sources even less trustworthy say he went toOxford; these claims, first made inGiovanni Boccaccio's book on Dante several decades after his death, seem inspired by readers who were impressed with the poet's wide learning and erudition. No longer occupied with the day-to-day affairs of Florentine politics after his exile, Dante deepened his engagement with philosophy and literature, as seen in the intellectual rigor and thematic scope of his prose works from this period. Yet, while his ideas traveled widely, there is no definitive evidence that he ever left Italy. Dante'sImmensa Dei dilectione testante to Henry VII of Luxembourg confirms his residence "beneath the springs of Arno, near Tuscany" in April 1311.[51]
In 1310, Holy Roman EmperorHenry VII ofLuxembourg marched into Italy at the head of 5,000 troops. Dante saw in him a newCharlemagne who would restore the office of the Holy Roman Emperor to its former glory and also retake Florence from the Black Guelphs. He wrote to Henry and several Italian princes, demanding that they destroy the Black Guelphs.[52] Mixing religion and private concerns in his writings, he invoked the worst anger of God against his city and suggested several particular targets, who were also his personal enemies. It was during this time that he wroteDe Monarchia, proposing auniversal monarchy under Henry VII.[53]
At some point during his exile, he conceived of theComedy, but the date is uncertain. The work is far more assured and ambitious than anything he had written in Florence. It is likely that he would have undertaken such a project only after accepting that his political ambitions, which had been central to him before his banishment, may have been indefinitely disrupted. It is also noticeable that Beatrice has returned to his imagination with renewed force and with a wider meaning than in theVita Nuova; inConvivio (writtenc. 1304–07) he had declared that the memory of this youthful romance belonged to the past.[54]
An early indication that the poem was underway is a notice byFrancesco da Barberino, tucked into hisDocumenti d'Amore (Lessons of Love), probably written in 1314 or early 1315. Francesco notes that Dante followed theAeneid in a poem called "Comedy" and that the setting of this poem (or part of it) was the underworld; i.e., hell.[55] The brief note gives no incontestable indication that Barberino had seen or read even theInferno, or that this part had been published at the time, but it indicates composition was well underway and that the sketching of the poem might have begun some years before. (It has been suggested that a knowledge of Dante's work also underlies some of the illuminations in Francesco da Barberino's earlierOfficiolum [c. 1305–08], a manuscript that came to light in 2003.[56]) It is known that theInferno had been published by 1317; this is established by quoted lines interspersed in the margins of contemporary dated records fromBologna, but there is no certainty as to whether the three parts of the poem were each published in full or, rather, a few cantos at a time.Paradiso was likely finished before he died, but it may have been published posthumously.[57]
Statue of Dante in Verona
In 1312, Henry assaulted Florence and defeated the Black Guelphs, but there is no evidence that Dante was involved. Some say he refused to participate in the attack on his city by a foreigner; others suggest that he had become unpopular with the White Guelphs, too, and that any trace of his passage had carefully been removed. Henry VII died (from a fever) in 1313 and with him any hope for Dante to see Florence again. He returned to Verona, whereCangrande I della Scala allowed him to live in certain security and, presumably, in a fair degree of prosperity. Cangrande was admitted to Dante's Paradise (Paradiso, XVII, 76).[58]
During the period of his exile, Dante corresponded with Dominican theologian Fr. Nicholas Brunacci (1240–1322), who had been a student ofThomas Aquinas at the Santa Sabinastudium in Rome, later at Paris,[59] and ofAlbert the Great at the Colognestudium.[60] Brunacci became lector at the Santa Sabinastudium, forerunner of thePontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, and later served in thepapal curia.[61]
In 1315, Florence was forced byUguccione della Faggiuola (the military officer controlling the town) to grant an amnesty to those in exile, including Dante. But for this, Florence required public penance in addition to payment of a high fine. Dante refused, preferring to remain in exile. When Uguccione defeated Florence, Dante's death sentence was commuted to house arrest, on condition that he go to Florence to swear he would never enter the town again. He refused to go, and his death sentence was confirmed and extended to his sons.[62] Despite this, he still hoped late in life that he might be invited back to Florence on honorable terms, particularly in praise of his poetry.[63]
On the grave, a verse ofBernardo Canaccio, a friend of Dante, is dedicated to Florence:
parvi Florentia mater amoris
Florence, mother of little love
In 1329,Bertrand du Pouget, Cardinal and nephew ofPope John XXII, classified Dante'sMonarchia as heretical and sought to have his bones burned at the stake.Ostasio I da Polenta and Pino della Tosa, allies of Pouget, interceded to prevent the destruction of Dante's remains.[67]
Recreated death mask of Dante in Palazzo Vecchio, Florence
Florence eventually came to regret having exiled Dante. The city made repeated requests for the return of his remains. The custodians of the body in Ravenna refused, at one point going so far as to conceal the bones in a false wall of the monastery. Florence built a tomb for Dante in 1829, in theBasilica of Santa Croce. That tomb has been empty ever since, with Dante's body remaining in Ravenna. The front of his tomb in Florence readsOnorate l'altissimo poeta—which roughly translates as "Honor the most exalted poet" and is a quote from the fourth canto of theInferno.[68]
In 1945, thefascist government discussed bringing Dante's remains to theValtellina Redoubt, the Alpine valley in which the regime intended to make its last stand against theAllies. The case was made that "the greatest symbol of Italianness" should be present at fascism's "heroic" end, but ultimately, no action was taken.[69]
A copy of Dante's death mask has been displayed since 1911 in thePalazzo Vecchio; scholars today believe it is not a true death mask and was probably carved in 1483, perhaps byPietro andTullio Lombardo.[70]
Dante on the national side of the Italian 2 euro coin
The first formal biography of Dante was theVita di Dante (also known asTrattatello in laude di Dante), written after 1348 by Giovanni Boccaccio.[71] Although several statements and episodes of it have been deemed unreliable on the basis of modern research, an earlier account of Dante's life and works had been included in theNuova Cronica of the Florentine chroniclerGiovanni Villani.[72]
Statue of Dante atDante Park in Manhattan, New York City
Italy's first dreadnought battleship was completed in 1913 and namedDante Alighieri in honor of him.[77]
On April 30, 1921, in honor of the 600th anniversary of Dante's death,Pope Benedict XV promulgated an encyclical namedIn praeclara summorum, naming Dante as one "of the many celebrated geniuses of whom the Catholic faith can boast" and the "pride and glory of humanity".[78]
On December 7, 1965,Pope Paul VI promulgated the Latinmotu proprio titledAltissimi cantus, which was dedicated to Dante's figure and poetry.[81] In that year, the pope also donated a golden ironGreek Cross to Dante's burial site in Ravenna, on the occasion of the 700th anniversary of his birth.[82][83] The same cross was blessed byPope Francis in October 2020.[84]
In 2007, a reconstruction of Dante's face was undertaken in a collaborative project. Artists from theUniversity of Pisa and forensic engineers at theUniversity of Bologna atForlì constructed the model, portraying Dante's features as somewhat different from what was once thought.[85][86]
In 2008, the Municipality of Florence officially apologized for expelling Dante 700 years earlier.[87][88][89][90] In May 2021, a symbolic re-trial was held virtually in Florence to posthumously clear his name.[91]
A celebration was held in 2015 at Italy'sSenate of the Republic for the 750th anniversary of Dante's birth. It included a commemoration from Pope Francis, who also issued the apostolic letterCando lucis aeternae in honor of the anniversary.[92][93]
Most of Dante's literary work was composed after his exile in 1301.La Vita Nuova ("The New Life") is the only major work that predates it; it is a collection of lyric poems (sonnets and songs) with commentary in prose, ostensibly intended to be circulated in manuscript form, as was customary for such poems.[94] It also contains, or constructs, the story of his love for Beatrice Portinari, who later served as the ultimate symbol of salvation in theComedy, a function already indicated in the final pages of theVita Nuova. The work contains many of Dante's love poems in Tuscan, which was not unprecedented; the vernacular had been regularly used for lyric works before, during all the thirteenth century. However, Dante's commentary on his own work is also in the vernacular—both in theVita Nuova and in theConvivio—instead of the Latin that was almost universally used.[95]
TheDivine Comedy describes Dante's journey throughHell (Inferno),Purgatory (Purgatorio), andParadise (Paradiso); he is first guided by the Roman poet Virgil and then by Beatrice. Of the books,Purgatorio is arguably the most lyrical of the three, referring to more contemporary poets and artists thanInferno;Paradiso is the most heavily theological, and the one in which, many scholars have argued, theDivine Comedy's most beautiful and mystic passages appear.[96][97]
With its seriousness of purpose, its literary stature and the range—both stylistic and thematic—of its content, theComedy soon became a cornerstone in the evolution of Italian as an established literary language. Dante was more aware than most early Italian writers of the variety of Italian dialects and of the need to create a literature and a unified literary language beyond the limits of Latin writing at the time; in that sense, he is a forerunner of theRenaissance, with its effort to create vernacular literature in competition with earlier classical writers. Dante's in-depth knowledge (within the limits of his time) of Roman antiquity, and his evident admiration for some aspects of pagan Rome, also point forward to the 15th century.
Dante, poised between the mountain of purgatory and the city of Florence, displays theincipitNel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita in a detail ofDomenico di Michelino's painting, Florence, 1465.
He wrote theComedy in a language he called "Italian", in some sense an amalgamated literary language predominantly based on the regional dialect of Tuscany, but with some elements of Latin and other regional dialects.[98] He deliberately aimed to reach a readership throughout Italy including laymen, clergymen and other poets. By creating a poem of epic structure and philosophic purpose, he established that the Italian language was suitable for the highest sort of expression. In French, Italian is sometimes nicknamedla langue de Dante. Unlike Boccaccio,Milton orAriosto, Dante did not really become an author read across Europe until the Romantic era. To the Romantics, Dante, likeHomer andShakespeare, was a prime example of the "original genius" who set his own rules, created persons of overpowering stature and depth, and went beyond any imitation of the patterns of earlier masters; and who, in turn, could not truly be imitated.[citation needed] Throughout the 19th century, Dante's reputation grew and solidified; and by 1865, the 600th anniversary of his birth, he had become established as one of the greatest literary icons of the Western world.[99]
Dante andVirgil visiting Hell, as depicted inInferno, painted by Rafael Flores, 1855
New readers often wonder how such a serious work may be called a "comedy". In theclassical sense the wordcomedy refers to works that reflect belief in an ordered universe, in which events tend toward not only a happy or amusing ending but one influenced by a Providential will that orders all things to an ultimate good. By this meaning of the word, as Dante himself allegedly wrote ina letter to Cangrande, the progression of the pilgrimage from Hell to Paradise is the paradigmatic expression of comedy, since the work begins with the pilgrim's moral confusion and ends with the vision of God.[100]
A number of other works are credited to Dante.Convivio ("The Banquet")[101] is a collection of his longest poems with an (unfinished) allegorical commentary.Monarchia ("Monarchy")[102] is a summary treatise of political philosophy in Latin which was condemned and burned after Dante's death[103][104] by the Papal LegateBertrando del Poggetto; it argues for the necessity of a universal or global monarchy to establish universal peace in this life, and this monarchy's relationship to the Roman Catholic Church as guide to eternal peace.[105]De vulgari eloquentia ("On the Eloquence in the Vernacular")[106] is a treatise on vernacular literature, partly inspired by theRazos de trobar ofRaimon Vidal de Bezaudun.[107][108]Quaestio de aqua et terra ("A Question of the Water and of the Land") is a theological work discussing the arrangement of Earth's dry land and ocean. TheEclogues are two poems addressed to the poet Giovanni del Virgilio. Dante is also sometimes credited with writingIl Fiore ("The Flower"), a series of sonnets summarizingLe Roman de la Rose, andDetto d'Amore ("Tale of Love"), a short narrative poem also based onLe Roman de la Rose. These would be the earliest, and most novice, of his known works.[109]Le Rime is a posthumous collection of miscellaneous poems.
^abItalian pronunciation:[duˈrantedjaliˈɡjɛːrodeʎʎaliˈɡjɛːri]. The name 'Dante' is understood to be ahypocorism of the name 'Durante', though no document known to survive from Dante's lifetime refers to him as 'Durante' (including his own writings). A document prepared for Dante's sonJacopo refers to "Durante, often called Dante". He may have been named for his maternal grandfather Durante degli Abati.[2]
^abHis birth date is listed as "probably in the end of May" byRobert Hollander in "Dante" inDictionary of the Middle Ages, volume 4. According toGiovanni Boccaccio, the poet said he was born in May. See "Alighieri, Dante" in theDizionario Biografico degli Italiani.
^Gorni, Guglielmo (2009). "Nascita e anagrafe di Dante".Dante: storia di un visionario. Rome: Gius. Laterza & Figli.ISBN9788858101742.
^Wetherbee, Winthrop; Aleksander, Jason (April 30, 2018). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford Universityhttps://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/dante/ – via Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.{{cite encyclopedia}}:Missing or empty|title= (help);Text "Dante" ignored (help);Text "entry" ignored (help)
^Matheson, Lister M. (2012).Icons of the Middle Ages: Rulers, Writers, Rebels, and Saints. Greenwood Pub Group. p. 244.
^Haller, Elizabeth K. (2012)."Dante Alighieri". In Matheson, Lister M. (ed.).Icons of the Middle Ages: Rulers, Writers, Rebels, and Saints. Vol. 1. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood. p. 244.ISBN978-0-313-34080-2.
^Chimenz, Siro A. (1960)."Alighieri, Dante".Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani (in Italian). Vol. 2. Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana.Archived from the original on March 17, 2022. RetrievedFebruary 22, 2022.
^di Serego Alighieri, Sperello; Capaccioli, Massimo (2022).The Sun and the other Stars of Dante Alighieri. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. p. 48.ISBN9789811246227.
^"Dante Alighieri".poets.org. Academy of American Poets.Archived from the original on April 17, 2019. RetrievedDecember 20, 2019.
^Nilsen, Alleen Pace; Don L.F. Nilsen (2007).Names and Naming in Young Adult Literature. Scarecrow Studies in Young Adult Literature. Vol. 27. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. p. 133.ISBN978-0-8108-6685-0.
^Ruud, Jay (2008).Critical Companion to Dante. Infobase Publishing. p. 138.ISBN978-1-4381-0841-4.
^"Chronology".Renaissance Dante in Print (1472–1629). University of Notre Dame.Archived from the original on December 25, 2023. RetrievedDecember 25, 2023.
^Elena Lombardi; Francesca Southerden; Manuele Gragnolati, eds. (2021).The Oxford Handbook of Dante. Oxford University Press. p. 343.ISBN9780198820741.
^Dino Compagni,Cronica delle cose occorrenti ne' tempi suoi
^Wickstool, Philip Henry (1903).The Convivio of Dante Alighieri. London : J. M. Dent and Co. p. 5.And in that I spoke before entrance on the prime of manhood, and in this when I had already passed the same.
^SeeBookrags.com and Tigerstedt, E.N. 1967,Dante; Tiden Mannen Verket (Dante; The Age, the Man, the Work), Bonniers, Stockholm, 1967.[dead link]
^"Dante death mask".florenceinferno.com. July 2013.Archived from the original on July 22, 2019. RetrievedJuly 22, 2019.
^"Dante Alighieri". The Catholic Encyclopedia.Archived from the original on August 19, 2023. RetrievedMay 2, 2010.
^Vauchez, André; Dobson, Richard Barrie; Lapidge, Michael (2000).Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. p. 1517.;Caesar, Michael (1989).Dante, the Critical Heritage, 1314(?)–1870. London: Routledge. p. xi.[ISBN missing]
^Benazzi, S (2009). "The Face of the Poet Dante Alighieri, Reconstructed by Virtual Modeling and Forensic Anthropology Techniques".Journal of Archaeological Science.36 (2):278–283.Bibcode:2009JArSc..36..278B.doi:10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.006.
^Kalkavage, Peter (August 10, 2014)."In the Heaven of Knowing: Dante's Paradiso".theimaginativeconservative.org. The Imaginative Conservative.Archived from the original on August 28, 2022. RetrievedAugust 28, 2022.
^Falconburg, Darrell."The Way of Beauty in Dante".dappledthings.org. Dappled Things.Archived from the original on August 28, 2022. RetrievedAugust 28, 2022.
^UCL Special Collections (August 23, 2018)."Dante Collection".UCL Special Collections.Archived from the original on September 20, 2022. RetrievedDecember 12, 2023.
Guénon, René (1925).The Esoterism of Dante, trans. by C.B. Berhill, in thePerennial Wisdom Series. Ghent, NY: Sophia Perennis et Universalis, 1996. viii, 72 p.N.B.: Originally published in French, entitled L'Esoterisme de Danté, in 1925.ISBN0-900588-02-0
Hede, Jesper (2007).Reading Dante: The Pursuit of Meaning. Lanham: Lexington Books.ISBN978-0-7391-2196-2.
Miles, Thomas (2008). "Dante: Tours of Hell: Mapping the Landscape of Sin and Despair". In Stewart, Jon (ed.).Kierkegaard and the Patristic and Medieval Traditions. Ashgate. pp. 223–236.ISBN978-0-7546-6391-1.
Musa, Mark (1974).Advent at the Gates: Dante's Comedy. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.ISBN978-0253301406.
Raffa, Guy P. (2009).The Complete Danteworlds: A Reader's Guide to the Divine Comedy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.ISBN978-0-226-70270-4.
Scartazzini, Giovanni Andrea (1896–1898).Enciclopedia dantesca: dizionario critico e ragionato di quanto concerne la vita e le opere di Dante Alighieri (2 volumes).OCLC12202483.
Scott, John A. (1996).Dante's Political Purgatory. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.ISBN978-0-585-12724-8.
Seung, T.K. (1962).The Fragile Leaves of the Sibyl: Dante's Master Plan. Westminster, MD: Newman Press.OCLC1426455.
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