| Danish Resistance | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part ofEuropean theatre of World War II andOccupation of Denmark | |||||||
  Danish resistance fighters battling German soldiers 5 May 1945. Flakhaven, Odense (left), Danish SS soldiers disarmed by resistance fighters in Copenhagen, 1945 (right) | |||||||
| |||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||
 Denmark (from 1943) | Occupation Government (until 1943) Germany | ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
| Frode JakobsenBent Faurschou Hviid †Marius Fiil †Povl Falk-Jensen Various Danish resistance leaders |
Christian Frederik von Schalburg † | ||||||
| Units involved | |||||||
| Danish Brigade in Sweden | Schalburg Corps
| ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
| about 850 resistance fighters | |||||||
| 600 Danish civilians | |||||||
| Righteous Among the Nations |
|---|
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| By country |
TheDanish resistance movements (Danish:Den danske modstandsbevægelse) were anunderground insurgency to resist theGermanoccupation of Denmark duringWorld War II. Due to the initially lenient arrangements, in which theNazi occupation authority allowed the democratic government to stay in power, the resistance movement was slower to develop effective tactics on a wide scale than in some other countries.
Members of the Danish resistance movement were involved in underground activities, ranging from producing illegal publications tospying andsabotage. Major groups included the communistBOPA (Danish:Borgerlige Partisaner, Civil Partisans) andHolger Danske, both based inCopenhagen. Some small resistance groups such as the Samsing Group and theChurchill Club also contributed to the sabotage effort. Resistance agents killed an estimated 400 Danish Nazis, informers and collaborators until 1944. After that date, they also killed some German nationals.
In the postwar period, the Resistance was supported by politicians within Denmark and there was little effort to closely examine the killings. Studies in the late 20th and early 21st centuries revealed cases of improvised and contingent decision making about the targets, including morally ambiguous choices.[citation needed][clarification needed] Several important books and films have been produced on this topic.
During theinvasion of Denmark on April 9, 1940 and subsequentoccupation, the Danish king and government chose not to flee the country and instead collaborated with the German authorities who allowed the Danish government to remain in power. The Germans had reasons to do so, especially as they wanted to showcase Denmark as a "modelprotectorate", earning the nicknamethe Cream Front (German:Sahnefront), due to the relative ease of the occupation and copious amount of dairy products.[1] As thedemocratically elected Danish government remained in power, Danish citizens had less motivation to fight the occupation than in countries where the Germans established puppet governments, such asNorway orFrance. Thepolice also remained under Danish authority and led by Danes.
Daily life in Denmark remained much the same as before the occupation. The Germans did make certain changes: imposing officialcensorship, prohibiting dealings with theAllies, and stationing German troops in the country. The Danish government actively discouraged violent resistance because it feared a severe backlash from the Germans against the civilian population.
Immediately after the occupation began, isolated attempts were made to set up resistance and intelligence activities. Intelligence officers from the Danish army, known as the "Princes," began channeling reports toLondon allies as early as April 13, 1940. Soon afterwards,Ebbe Munck, a journalist fromBerlingske Tidende, arranged to be transferred toStockholm. From there he could more easily report to and communicate with the British.[2]
Following Germany'sinvasion of the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941 the Germans banned theDanish Communist Party and had the Danish police arrest its members.[3] Those members who either avoided arrest or later escaped thus went underground and created resistancecells. From October 1942, they published a clandestine newspaper,Land og Folk ("Land and People"), based on the previous Communist Party newspaper,Arbejderbladet, which was distributed widely across the country.Circulation grew to 120,000 copies per day by the end of the occupation.[4] At the beginning of 1943, the cells were centrally coordinated underBOPA (Borgerlige Partisaner – Civil Partisans), which also began to plan acts of sabotage.
As time went on, many otherinsurgent groups formed to oppose the occupation. These included theHvidsten group, which received weapons parachuted by the British, andHolger Danske, which was successful in organizingsabotage activities and the assassinations ofcollaborators. TheChurchill club, one of the first resistance groups in Denmark, was a group of eight schoolboys fromAalborg. They performed some 25 acts of sabotage against the Germans, destroying Nazi German assets with makeshift grenades and stealing Nazi German weapons.
When the Germans forced the Danish government to sign theanti-Comintern pact, a largeprotest broke out inCopenhagen.[citation needed]
The number of DanishNazis was low before the war, and this trend continued throughout the occupation. This was confirmed in the1943 parliamentary elections, in which the population voted overwhelmingly for the four traditional parties, or abstained. The latter option was widely interpreted as votes for the Danish Communist Party. The election was a disappointment for theNational Socialist Workers' Party of Denmark (DNSAP) and GermanReichsbevollmächtigter. Dr.Werner Best abandoned plans to create a government under Danish Nazi leaderFrits Clausen, due to Clausen's lack of public support.
In 1942–43, resistance operations gradually shifted to more violent action, most notably acts of sabotage. Various groups succeeded in making contacts with the BritishSpecial Operations Executive (SOE) which began making airdrops of agents and supplies. There were not many drops until August 1944, but they increased through the end of the occupation. In total throughout the war, over 600 tons of weapons, equipment and explosives were airdropped to the Danish resistance by the Allies, while fifty-three SOE agents were dispatched to Denmark.[5]
On 23 April 1940,[6] members of Danish military intelligence established contacts with their British counterparts through the British diplomatic mission in Stockholm. The first intelligence dispatch was sent by messenger to the Stockholm mission in the autumn of 1940. This evolved into regular dispatches of military and political intelligence, and by 1942–43, the number of dispatches had increased to at least one per week.[6] In addition, an employee ofDanmarks Radio was able to transmit short messages to Britain through the national broadcasting network.
The intelligence was gathered mostly by officers in the Danish army and navy; they reported information about political developments, the location and size of German military units, and details about the Danish section of theAtlantic Wall fortifications. In 1942, the Germans demanded the removal of the Danish military fromJutland, but intelligence operations continued. It was carried out by plainclothes personnel or by reserve officers, since this group was not included in the evacuation order.[6] Following the liberation of Denmark,Field MarshalBernard Law Montgomery described the intelligence gathered in Denmark as "second to none".[7]
As the years went by, the number of acts of sabotage and violence grew. In 1943, the number grew dramatically, to the point that the German authorities became dissatisfied with the Danish authorities' handling of the situation. At the end of August, the Germans took over full administration in Denmark, which allowed them to deal with the population as they wished. The Germans raided every police station in Denmark, disarmed, arrested and deported all 2,000 Danish police officers to Germany.[5] Policing became easier for the Nazis, but more and more people became involved with the movement because they were no longer worried about protecting the Danish government.
In particular, theDanish Freedom Council was set up in September 1943, bringing together the various resistance groups in order to improve their efficiency and resolve. An underground government was established. Allied governments, who had been skeptical about Denmark's commitment to fight Germany, began recognising it as a full ally.[8]
Due to concerns about prisoners and information held inGestapo headquarters at theShellhus in the centre ofCopenhagen, the resistance repeatedly requested a tacticalRAF raid on the headquarters to destroy records and release prisoners.Britain initially turned down the request due to the risk of civilian casualties, but eventually launchedOperation Carthage, a very low-level raid by 20de Havilland Mosquito fighter-bombers, escorted by 30P-51 Mustang fighters. The raid succeeded in destroying the headquarters, releasing 18 prisoners of the Gestapo, and disrupting anti-resistance operations throughout Denmark. However, 125 civilians lost their lives due to the errant bombing of a nearby boarding school.[9]
In 1943, the movement scored a great success inrescuing all but 500 of Denmark'sJewish population of 7,000–8,000 from being sent to theNazi concentration camps by helping transport them to neutralSweden, where they were offered asylum.[10][11] The Danish resistance movement has been honoured as a collective atYad Vashem inIsrael as being part of the "Righteous Among the Nations".[12] They were honoured as a collective rather than as individuals at their own request.[13]
Another success was the disruption of the Danish railway network in the days afterD-Day, which delayed the movement of German troops toFrance as reinforcements.
By the end of the war, the organized resistance movement in Denmark had scored many successes. It is believed to have killed nearly 400 persons (the top official number is 385) from 1943 through 1945, who were Danish Nazis, informers or collaborators thought to pose a threat to the Resistance, or Danes working for the Gestapo.[14] The rationale behind the executions was discussed, and several accounts by participants said a committee identified targets, but no historic evidence of this system has been found.[14] In the postwar period, while the killings were criticized, they were also defended by such politicians asFrode Jakobsen andPer Federspiel.
The movement lost slightly more than 850 membersin action, inprison, inNazi concentration camps, or (in the case of 102 resistance members[15])executed following acourt-martial.
TheDanish National Museum maintains theMuseum of Danish Resistance inCopenhagen.
Since the late 20th century, there has been more discussion about the morality of some of the killings carried out by the resistance, sparked by a TV series about the death ofJane Horney, a Danish citizen killed at sea in what Frode Jakobsen defended as an act of war.[16]
With the 60th anniversary of the end of the war, the issue was re-examined in two new studies: Stefan Emkjar'sStikkerdrab and Peter Ovig Knudsen'sEtter drabet, "the first profound approaches into the topic."[17] Both authors used veterans of the resistance movement, and covered the sometimes contingent, improvised nature of some of the actions. It suggested that some of the notedBent Faurschou-Hviid (Flammen)'s executions may have been mistakenly directed by a double agent.[18] Knudsen's work was adapted as a two-hour documentary film,With the Right to Kill (2003), which was shown on TV and later released in theaters.[19] These works have contributed to a national discussion on the topic.Flame and Citron (Flammen og Citronen, 2008) is a fictionalized drama film based on historic accounts of the two prominent Danish resistance fighters, directed byOle Christian Madsen. It portrays some of the moral ambiguity of their actions.
The extent to which the Danish resistance played an important strategic role in the war has been the subject of much discussion. Immediately after the war and until about 1970, the vast majority of accounts overrated the degree to which the resistance had been effective in battling against the Germans by acts of sabotage and by providing key intelligence to the Allies. More recently, however, after re-examining the archives, historians concur that, while the resistance provided a firm basis for moral support and paved the way for post-war governments, the strategic effect during the occupation was limited. The Germans did not need to send reinforcements to suppress the movement, and garrisoned the country with a comparatively small number ofWehrmacht troops. The resistance did not enter into active combat. Even the overall importance of Danish intelligence in the context ofUltra is questionable.[23]
In his history,No Small Achievement: Special Operations Executive and the Danish Resistance 1940-1945 (2002), Knud Jespersen examined the relationship between British Intelligence and the Danish Resistance. He quoted a report fromSHAEF stating that the resistance in Denmark.
"caused strain and embarrassment to the enemy...[and a] striking reduction in the flow of troops and stores from Norway [that] undoubtedly had an adverse effect on the reinforcements for the battles East and West of the Rhine."[24]
Examining the British archives, Jespersen also found a report concluding "that the overall effect of Danish resistance was to restore national pride and political unity."[24] He agreed that this was the movement's most important contribution to the nation.[24]
The Underground did not receive the Righteous Among the Nations title, which is only awarded to individuals, not to groups. This was also in the spirit of the request expressed by the members of the Danish underground not to honor them as individuals.
