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Dance in India comprises numerous styles ofdances, generally classified asclassical orfolk.[1] As with other aspects ofIndian culture, different forms of dances originated in different parts of India, developed according to the local traditions and also imbibed elements from other parts of the country.[2]
Sangeet Natak Academy, the national academy for performing arts in India, recognizes eight traditional dances asIndian classical dances,[3] while other sources and scholars recognize more.[4][5] These have roots in the Sanskrit textNatya Shastra,[1] and thereligious performance arts ofHinduism.[6][7][8]
Folk dances are numerous in number and style and vary according to the local tradition of the respective state, ethnic, or geographic region. Contemporary dances include refined and experimental fusions of classical, folk, and Western forms. Dancing traditions of India have influence not only over the dances in the whole ofSouth Asia, but on the dancing forms ofSoutheast Asia as well. Dances in Indian films, likeBollywood Dance for Hindi films, are often noted for freeform expression of dance and hold a significant presence in the popular culture of the Indian subcontinent.[9]
In India, a command over either ofSanskrit,Tamil,Telugu,Oriya,Meitei (Manipuri),Persian, orArabic, are highly appreciated and respected for learning dances (most significantlyIndian Classical Dances) as dancers could have the tools of these languages to go into the primary material texts.[10]
The theory, training, means and rationale for expressive practice in classical dance is documented and traceable to ancient classical texts, particularly theNatya Shastra.[1][11] Classical Indian dances have historically involved a school orguru-shishya parampara (teacher-disciple tradition) and require studies of the classical texts, physical exercises, and extensive training to systematically synchronize the dance repertoire with underlying play or composition, vocalists and the orchestra.[12][13]
A folk Indian dance is one which is largely anoral tradition,[14] whose traditions have been historically learnt and mostly passed down from one generation to the next through word of mouth and casual joint practice.[15] A semi-classical Indian dance is one that contains a classical imprint but has become a folk dance and lost its texts or schools. A tribal dance is a more local form of folk dance, typically found in one tribal population; typically tribal dances evolve into folk dances over a historic period.[16][17]
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The origins of dance in India go back to ancient times. The earliest paleolithic and neolithic cave paintings such as the UNESCO world heritage site atBhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh show dance scenes.[18] Several sculptures found atIndus Valley Civilisation archaeological sites, now distributed between Pakistan and India, show dance figures. For example, theDancing Girl sculpture is dated to about 2500 BCE, showing a 10.5 centimetres (4.1 in) high figurine in a dance pose.[19][20][21]
TheVedas integrate rituals with performance arts, such as a dramatic play, where not only praises to gods were recited or sung, but the dialogues were part of a dramatic representation and discussion of spiritual themes.[22][23] The Sanskrit verses in chapter 13.2 ofShatapatha Brahmana (≈800–700 BCE), for example, are written in the form of a play between two actors.[24]
The Vedic sacrifice (yajna) is presented as a kind of fight, with its actors, its dialogues, its portion to be set to music, its interludes, and its climaxes.
— Louis Renou, Vedic India[22]
The evidence of earliest dance-related texts are inNatasutras, which are mentioned in the text ofPanini, the sage who wrote the classic onSanskrit grammar, and who is dated to about 500 BCE.[25][26] This performance arts relatedSutra text is mentioned in other late Vedic texts, are as two scholars names Shilalin (IAST: Śilālin) and Krishashva (Kṛśaśva), credited to be pioneers in the studies of ancient drama, singing, dance and Sanskrit compositions for these arts.[25][27] Richmond et al. estimate theNatasutras to have been composed around 600 BCE, whose complete manuscript has not survived into the modern age.[26][25]
The classic text of dance and performance arts that has survived is the Hindu textNatya Shastra, attributed to sage Bharata. He credits the art his text systematically presents to times before him, ultimately toBrahma who created Natya-veda by taking the word from theRigveda, melody from theSamaveda, mime from theYajurveda, and emotion from theAtharvaveda.[28][29][30] The first complete compilation ofNatya Shastra is dated to between 200 BCE and 200 CE,[31][32] but estimates vary between 500 BCE and 500 CE.[33] The most studied version of the Natya Shastra text consists of about 6000 verses structured into 36 chapters.[31][34] The classical dances are rooted inNatya Shastra.[1]
India has a number ofclassical Indian dance forms, each of which can be traced to different parts of the country. Classical and folk dance forms also emerged from Indian traditions, epics, and mythology.[35][36]
Classical dance of India has developed a type of dance-drama that is a form of total theater. The dancer acts out a story almost exclusively through gestures. Most of the classical dances of India enact stories from Hindu mythology.[37] Each form represents the culture and ethos of a particular region or a group of people.[38]
The criteria for being considered classical is the style's adherence to the guidelines laid down inNatyashastra, which explains the Indian art of acting. TheSangeet Natak Akademi currently confers classical status on eight Indian classical dance styles:Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu),Kathak (North, West and CentralIndia),Kathakali (Kerala),Kuchipudi (Andhra),Odissi (Odisha),Manipuri (Manipur),Mohiniyattam (Kerala), andSattriya (Assam).[39][40] Another Indian classical dance, which is not yet recognized by Government of India, isGaudiya Nritya (West Bengal).[41][42] All classical dances of India have roots in Hindu arts and religious practices.[6][8]
The classical dance of India is also common outside it, for example, it was performed on the island of Oahu by their mayor (Proshakov E.D.) as part of the local folklore festival.The tradition of dance has been codified in the Natyashastra and performance is considered accomplished if it manages to evoke arasa (emotion) among the audience by invoking a particularbhava(gesture or facial expression). Classical dance is distinguished from folk dance because it has been regulated by the rules of the Natyashastra and all classical dances are performed only in accordance with them.[43]
Dating back to 1000 BC,Bharatnatyam is a classical dance from the South Indian state ofTamil Nadu, practiced predominantly in modern times by women. The dance is usually accompanied by classicalCarnatic music.[44] Bharatnatyam is a major genre ofIndian classical dance that originated in the Hindu temples ofTamil Nadu and neighboring regions.[45][46][47] Traditionally, Bharatanatyam has been a solo dance that was performed exclusively by women,[48][49] and expressed Hindu religious themes and spiritual ideas, particularly ofShaivism, but also ofVaishnavism andShaktism.[45][50][51] The character of the nayika is very important in classical plays, such as varnams. Contemporary Bharata Natyam declines main characters as gods, goddesses or parts of Nature (Creation, Sea, ...).[52]
Bharatanatyam and other classical dances in India were ridiculed and suppressed during the colonialBritish Raj era.[53][54][55] In the post-colonial period, it has grown to become the most popular classical Indian dance style in India and abroad, and is considered to be synonymous with Indian dance by many foreigners unaware of the diversity of dances and performance arts in Indian culture.[56]
Kathakali (katha, "story";kali, "performance") is a highly stylized classicaldance-drama form which originated fromKerala in the 17th century.[57][58][59] This classical dance form is another "story play" genre of art, but one distinguished by its elaborately colorful make-up, costumes and face masks wearing actor-dancers, who have traditionally been all males.[58][59]
Kathakali primarily developed as a Hindu performance art, performing plays and mythical legends related to Hinduism.[60] While its origin are more recent, its roots are in temple and folk arts such asKutiyattam and religious drama traceable to at least the 1st millennium CE.[58][61] A Kathakali performance incorporates movements from the ancient martial arts and athletic traditions of south India.[58][59][60] While linked to the temple dancing traditions such asKrishnanattam,Kutiyattam and others,Kathakali is different from these because unlike the older arts where the dancer-actor also had to be the vocal artist,Kathakali separated these roles allowing the dancer-actor to excel in and focus on choreography while the vocal artists focused on delivering their lines.[62]
Kathak is traditionally attributed to the traveling bards of ancientnorthern India, known as Kathakas or storytellers.[63] The term Kathak is derived from the VedicSanskrit wordKatha meaning "story", andkathaka in Sanskrit means "he who tells a story", or "to do with stories".[63][64] Kathak evolved during theBhakti movement, particularly by incorporating childhood and amorous stories of Hindu godKrishna, as well as independently in the courts of north Indian kingdoms.[63][65] It transitioned, adapted and integrated the tastes and Persian arts influence in the Mughal courts of the 16th and 17th century, was ridiculed and declined in the colonial British era,[55][66] then was reborn as India gained independence.[54][67]
Kathak is found in three distinct forms, named after the cities where the Kathak dance tradition evolved –Jaipur,Benares andLucknow.[68] Stylistically, the Kathak dance form emphasizes rhythmic foot movements, adorned with small bells (Ghungroo), the movement harmonized to the music, the legs and torso are generally straight, and the story is told through a developed vocabulary based on the gestures of arms and upper body movement, facial expressions, stage movements, bends and turns.[54][65][69]
Kuchipudi classical dance originated in a village ofKrishna district in modern era Indian state ofAndhra Pradesh.[70][71][72] It has roots in antiquity and developed as a religious art linked to traveling bards, temples and spiritual beliefs, like all major classical dances of India.[73][74][75] In its history, the Kuchipudi dancers were all males, typicallyBrahmins, who would play the roles of men and women in the story after dressing appropriately.[76]
Modern Kuchipudi tradition believes that Tirtha Narayana Yati and his disciple an orphan named Siddhendra Yogi founded and systematized the art in the 13th century.[77][78][79] Kuchipudi largely developed as a Hindu godKrishna-orientedVaishnavism tradition,[80] and it is most closely related toBhagavata Mela performance art found in Tamil Nadu,[74] which itself has originated fromAndhra Pradesh. The Kuchipudi performance includes pure dance (nritta),[81] and expressive part of the performance (nritya), where rhythmic gestures as asign language mime the play.[81][82] Vocalists and musicians accompany the artist, and thetala andraga set to (Carnatic music).[83] In modern productions, Kuchipudi dancers include men and women.[84]
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Odissi originated in theHindu temples ofOdisha – an eastern coastal state ofIndia.[85][86] Odissi, in its history, was performed predominantly by women,[48][85] and expressed religious stories and spiritual ideas, particularly ofVaishnavism (Vishnu asJagannath), but also of other traditions such as those related to Hindu godsShiva andSurya, as well as Hindu goddesses (Shaktism).[87] Odissi is traditionally a dance-drama genre of performance art, where the artist(s) and musicians play out a mythical story, a spiritual message or devotional poem from theHindu texts, using symbolic costumes,[88] body movement,abhinaya (expressions) andmudras (gestures andsign language) set out in ancient Sanskrit and Odia literature.[89]
Sattriya is a classical dance-drama performance art with origins in theKrishna-centered Vaishnavism monasteries ofAssam, and attributed to the 15th centuryBhakti movement scholar and saint namedSrimanta Sankardev.[90][91][92] One-act plays ofSattriya are calledAnkiya Nat, which combine the aesthetic and the religious through a ballad, dance and drama.[93][94] The plays are usually performed in the dance community halls (namghar[94]) of monastery temples (sattras).[95] The themes played relate to Krishna and Radha, sometimes other Vishnuavatars such as Rama and Sita.[96]
Manipuri Raas Leela dance is a unique form of dance drama which has its origin inManipur, a state in northeasternIndia bordering withMyanmar (Burma).[97][98] It is particularly known for its HinduVaishnavism themes, and performances of love-inspired dance drama of Radha-Krishna calledRas Lila.[97][99][100] However, the dance is also performed to themes related toShaivism,Shaktism.[101][102] The Manipuri Raas Leela dance is a team performance, with its own unique costumes notably theKumil (a barrel shaped, elegantly decorated skirt), aesthetics, conventions and repertoire.[103] The Manipuri dance drama is, for most part, marked by a performance that is graceful, fluid, sinuous with greater emphasis on hand and upper body gestures.[104][105]
Mohiniyattam developed in the state ofKerala, and gets its name fromMohini – the seductressavatar of Vishnu, who in Hindu mythology uses her charms to help the good prevail in a battle between good and evil.[106][107] Mohiniyattam follows the Lasya style described inNatya Shastra, which is a dance that is delicate, with soft, feminine movements.[107][108] It is traditionally a solo dance performed by women after extensive training. The repertoire of Mohiniyattam includes pure and expressive dance-drama performances, timed to sopana (slower melody) styled music,[109][110] with recitation. The songs are typically in a Malayalam-Sanskrit hybrid called Manipravala.[107]
Folk dances and plays in India retain significance in rural areas as the expression of the daily work and rituals of village communities.[111]
Sanskrit literature of medieval times describes several forms of group dances such asHallisaka,Rasaka,Dand Rasaka andCharchari. TheNatya Shastra includes group dances of women as a preliminary dance performed in prelude to a drama.[112]
India has numerous folk dances. Everystate has its own folk dance forms likeBihu andBagurumba inAssam,Garba,Gagari (dance),Ghodakhund &Dandiya inGujarat,Nati inHimachal Pradesh,Neyopa,Bacha Nagma inJammu and Kashmir,Jhumair,Domkach inJharkhand,Bedara Vesha,Dollu Kunitha inKarnataka,Thirayattam andTheyyam inKerala,Dalkhai inOdisha,Bhangra &Giddha inPunjab,Kalbelia,Ghoomar,Rasiya inRajasthan,Perini Dance inTelangana,Chholiya dance inUttarakhand and likewise for each state and smaller regions in it.[113]Lavani, andLezim, and Koli dance is most popular dance inMaharashtra.
Tribal Dances in India are inspired by the tribal folklore. Each ethnic group has its own distinct combination of myths, legends, tales, proverbs, riddles, ballads, folk songs, folk dance, and folk music.[114]
The dancers do not necessarily fall rigidly into the category of "tribal". However, these forms of dance closely depict their life, social relationships, work, and religious affiliations. They represent the rich culture and customs of their native lands through intricate movements of their bodies. A wide variation can be observed in the intensity of these dances. Some involve very slight movement with a groovier edge to it, while others involve elevated and vigorous involvement of limbs.
These dances are composed mostly on locally made instruments. Percussion instruments feature in most of these dances. Music is produced through indigenous instruments. Music too has its own diversity in these tribal dances with the aesthetics ranging from mild and soothing to strong and weighted rhythms. A few of them also have songs, either sung by themselves or by onlookers. The costumes vary from traditional saris of a particular pattern to skirts and blouses with mirror work for women and corresponding dhotis and upper-wear for men. They celebrate contemporary events, and victories and are often performed as a mode of appeasing the tribal deities.
A lot of the dance styles depend upon the regional positioning of the ethnic group. Factors as small as the east or west of a river result in a change of dance form even though the overreaching look of it may seem the same. Religious affiliation affects the content of the songs and hence the actions in a dance sequence. Another major factor affecting their content is the festivals, mostly harvest.
For example, the ethnic groups from the plain land rabhas from the hilly forested areas of Assam make use of baroyat (a plate-like instrument), handa (a type of sword), boushi (an adze-like instrument), boumshi (a type of bamboo flute), sum (a heavy wooden instrument), dhansi, kalbansi, kalhurang, and chingbakak. Traditionally, their dances are called basili. Through their dance, they express their labors, rejoicings and sorrows. Handur Basu, their pseudo-war dance, expresses their strength and solidarity.[115]
From a broader point of view, the different tribal dance forms, as they would be classified in the context of territory are:
Siddi, Tappeta Gundlu, Urumulu (thunder dance), Butta Bommalata, Goravayyalu, Garaga (Vessel Dance), Vira Natyam (Heroic Dance), Kolatam, Chiratala Bhajana, Dappu, Puli Vesham (Tiger Dance), Gobbi, Karuva, and Veedhi Bhagavatam.[116]
Ponung, Sadinuktso, Khampti, Ka Fifai, Idu Mishmi (ritual) and Wancho.
Dhuliya and Bhawariya, Bihu, Deodhani, Zikirs, Apsara-Sabah.[116]
Mussoll, Dulpod or Durpod, Kunnbi-Geet, Amon, Shigmo, Fugdi, and Dhalo.
Rasleela, Phag Dance, Phalgun, Daph Dance, Dhamaal, Loor, Guga, Jhomar, Ghomar, Khoria, Holi, Sapela.[116]
Chambyali dance, ghuraiyan, pahadi nati, Dalshone and Cholamba, jhamakda, Jataru Kayang, Jhoori, Ji, Swang Tegi, Rasa.[116]
Jhumair,Domkach,Paiki,Chhau, Mundari dance, Santali dance.[117]
Veeragase, Nandi Dhwaja, Beesu Kamshaley, Pata Kunitha, Bana Debara Kunitha, Pooja kunitha, Karaga, Gorawa Mela, Bhuta Nrutya, Naga Nrutya, Batte Kola, Chennu Kunitha, Maaragalu Kunitha, Kolata, Simha Nrutya,[116]Yakshagana
Thirayattam, Padayani, Ayyappanvilakku,Vattakkali, Theyyam, Mohiniyattom, Kadhakali, Koodiyattam, Thiruvathira Kali, Ottamthullal, Kerala folk dance, Kalamezhuthum Pattum, Oppana, Marghamkali, Chavittunadakam, Mudiyettu, Dhaphumuttu, Parichamuttukali, Kolkali, Arbhanamuttu, Pulikali, Kummattikali, Poorakali, Arjunanirtham, Pettathullal
Dadariya, Panthii, Suaa, Kaksat, Maria, Shaila, Gondi, Gaur, Karma, Sarhul, Raut Nacha, Danda Nacha, Gerri, Thiski, Bar, Relo, Muriya
Sugga, Banjaara (Lehangi), Matki dance, Phul Patti dance, Grida dance.[116]
Lie Haraoba dance, Chanlam, Toonaga Lomna dance[116]
Wiking, Pombalang Nongkrem[116]
Cheraw, Khuallam, Chheihlam, Chailam, Tlanglam, Sarlamkai, Chawnglaizawn[116]
Lavani, Koli, Tamasha, Bala Dindi, Dhangari Gaja[116]
Naga, Ghumri,[116] Danda Nacha,[118]Chhau, Goti Pua, Dal khai, Baagha Nacha, Keisabadi
Bhangra,Gidha,Kikli,Sammi, Karthi
Banjaara,Ghoomar, Fire dance, Tera tali, Kachhi Ghori, Geedar[116]
Pang Toed Chaam (Chaam means dance) performed during the Pang Lhabsol festival in honor of the Guardian deity Khang-Chen-Dzonga, Maruni (Nepali Dance), and Tamak.[116]
Karakam, Puravai Attam, Ariyar Natanam, Podikazhi Attam, Kummi, Kavadi, Kolattam, Navasandhi, Kuravaik Koothu, Mayilaattam, Oyil Kummi, Pavakkuthu[116]
Chhau, Santali dance, Jatra, Gazan[116]
Lozen, Gouyen[116]
Contemporary dance in India encompasses a wide range of dance activities currently performed in India. It includeschoreography forIndian cinema, modern Indianballet and experiments with existing classical and folk forms of dance by various artists.[119]
Uday Shankar and Shobana Jeyasingh have led modern Indian ballet which combined classical Indian dance and music with Western stage techniques. Their productions have included themes related to Shiva-Parvati, Lanka Dahan, Panchatantra, Ramayana among others.[120]
The presentation of Indian dance styles in film,Hindi Cinema, has exposed the range of dance in India to a global audience.[121]
Dance and song sequences have been an integral component of films across the country. With the introduction of sound to the cinema in the filmAlam Ara in 1931, choreographed dance sequences became ubiquitous in Hindi and other Indian films.[122]
Dance in early Hindi films was primarily modeled on classical Indian dance styles such as Kathak, or folk dancers. Modern films often blend this earlier style with Western dance styles (MTV or inBroadway musicals), though it is not unusual to see western choreography and adapted classical dance numbers side by side in the same film. Typically, the hero or heroine performs with a troupe of supporting dancers. Many song-and-dance routines in Indian films feature dramatic shifts of location and/or changes of costume between verses of a song. It is popular for a hero and heroine to dance and sing apas de deux (aFrenchballet term, meaning "dance of two") in beautiful natural surroundings or architecturally grand settings, referred to as a "picturisation".[123]Indian films have often used what are now called "item numbers" where a glamorous female figure performs acameo. The choreography for such item numbers varies depending on the film's genre and situation. The film actress and dancerHelen was famous for her cabaret numbers.[124]
Often in movies, the actors don't sing the songs themselves that they dance too, themselves but have another artist sing in the background. For an actor to sing in the song is unlikely but not rare. The dances in Bollywood can range from slow dancing to a more upbeat hip-hop style dance. The dancing itself is a fusion of all dance forms. It could be Indian classical, Indian folk dance, belly dancing, jazz, hip-hop, and everything else you can imagine.[125][126]
Since India's independence from colonial rule, numerous schools have opened to further education, training, and socialization through dance classes,[127][128] or simply a means to exercise and fitness.[129]
Major cities in India now have numerous schools that offer lessons in dances such asOdissi,Bharatanatyam, and these cities host hundreds of shows every year.[130][131] Dances which were exclusive to one gender, now have participation by both males and females.[132] Many innovations and developments in the modern practice of classical Indian dances, states Anne-Marie Geston, are of a quasi-religious type.[56]
Some traditions of the Indian classical dance are practiced in the wholeIndian subcontinent, includingPakistan andBangladesh, with which India shares several other cultural traits. Indian mythologies play a significant part in dance forms of countries inSoutheast Asia, an example being the performances based onRamayana inJavanese dances.[133]
Sangeet Natak Akademi (The National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama) organizes dance festivals aroundIndia.[134]
It would be appropriate here to comment on Hindu classical dance. This developed in a religious context and was given high profile as part of temple worship. There are a number of regional and other styles as well as source texts, but the point we wish to stress is the participative nature of such dance. In form and content, the heart of dance as worship in Hinduism has always been 'expression' (abhinaya), i.e. the enacting of various themes.
