Damnatio memoriae (Classical Latin pronunciation:[damˈnaːti.oːmɛˈmɔri.ae̯]) is a modernLatin phrase meaning "condemnation of memory" or "damnation of memory", indicating that a person is to be excluded from official accounts.[1] There are and have been many routes todamnatio memoriae including the destruction of depictions, the removal of names from inscriptions and documents, and even large-scale rewritings of history.
Although the termdamnatio memoriae isLatin, the phrase was not used by the ancient Romans, and first appeared in athesis written inGermany in 1689 by Christoph Schreiter and Johann Heinrich Gerlach.[2] The thesis was titledDissertationem juridicam de damnatione memoriae, praescitu superiorum, in florentissima Philurea (lit. "A Legal Dissertation on the Damnation of Memory, Foreknown by Superiors, in the Most Flourishing Philurea").[2]
Damnatio memoriae ofCommodus on an inscription in the Museum of Roman HistoryOsterburken. The abbreviation "CO" was later restored with paint.
Today's best known examples ofdamnatio memoriae from antiquity concern chiselling stone inscriptions or deliberately omitting certain information from them.
According toStefan Zawadzki, the oldest known examples of such practices come from around 3000–2000 BC. He cites the example ofLagash (an ancient city-state founded by theSumerians in southernMesopotamia), where preserved inscriptions concerning a conflict with another city-state,Umma, do not mention the ruler of Umma, but describe him as "the man of Umma". Zawadzki sees this as an example of deliberate degradation of the ruler of Umma to the role of an unworthy person whose name and position in history the rulers of Lagash did not want to record for posterity.[3]
Coffin believed to belong toAkhenaten found in TombKV55, with the face obliterated
Egyptians also practiced this,[4] as seen in relics from pharaohAkhenaten's tomb and elsewhere. Akhenaten's sole worship of the godAten, instead of the traditionalpantheon, was considered heretical. During his reign, Akhenaten endeavoured to have all references to the godAmun chipped away and removed.[5] After his reign, temples to Aten were dismantled and the stones reused to create other temples. Images of Akhenaten had their faces chipped away, and images and references to Amun reappeared. The people blamed their misfortunes on Akhenaten's shift of worship toAtenism, away from the gods they served before him.[6] Other Egyptian victims of this practice include the pharaohs that immediately succeeded Akhenaten, includingSmenkhkare,Neferneferuaten, andAy.[4] The campaign ofdamnatio memoriae against Akhenaten and his successors was initiated by Ay's successor,Horemheb, who decided to erase from history all pharaohs associated with the unpopularAmarna Period; this process was continued by Horemheb's successors.[7]Tutankhamun was also erased from history in this way, even though he had restored Egypt to the Amun god, because he was one the kings who succeeded Akhenaten; he may also have been Akhenaten's son.
Part of an honorific decree forPhaedrus of Sphettus, passed in 259/8 BC. The lines mentioning Phaedrus' interactions with the Antigonids were chiselled out as part of thedamnatio memoriae of 200 BC.
The practice was known in Ancient Greece.[8] TheAthenians frequently destroyed inscriptions which referred to individuals or events that they no longer wished to commemorate.[9] AfterTimotheus was convicted of treason and removed from his post as general in 373BC, all references to him as a general were deleted from the previous year's naval catalogue.[10] The most complete example is their systematic removal of all references to theAntigonids from inscriptions in their city, in 200BC when they were besieged by the Antigonid kingPhilip V of Macedon during theSecond Macedonian War.[11] One decree praisingDemetrius Poliorcetes (Philip V's great-grandfather) was smashed and thrown down a well.[12]
AtDelphi, an honorific inscription erected between 337 and 327 BC forAristotle and his nephewCallisthenes, two philosophers who were closely associated with theMacedonians, were smashed and thrown in a well after the death ofAlexander of Macedon in 323BC.[12]
Erased mention ofGeta in an inscription after hisdamnatio memoriae (Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Cagliari)Lucius Aelius Sejanus suffereddamnatio memoriae following a failed conspiracy to overthrow emperorTiberius in AD31. His statues were destroyed and his name obliterated from allpublic records. The above coin fromAugusta Bilbilis, originally struck to mark the consulship of Sejanus, has the wordsL. Aelio Seiano obliterated.
In ancient Rome, the practice ofdamnatio memoriae was the condemnation ofemperors after their deaths. If the Senate or a later emperor did not like the acts of an emperor, they could have his property seized, his name erased and his statues reworked (normally defaced).[14]
Compounding this difficulty is the fact that a completely successfuldamnatio memoriae results—by definition—in the full and total erasure of the subject from the historical record. In the case of figures such as emperors or consuls it is unlikely that complete success was possible, as even comprehensive obliteration of the person's existence and actions in records and the like would continue to be historically visible without extensive reworking. The impracticality of such a cover-up could be vast—in the case ofEmperor Geta, for example, coins bearing hiseffigy proved difficult to entirely remove from circulation for several years, even though the mere mention of his name was punishable by death.[15]
Difficulties in implementation also arose if there was not full and enduring agreement with the punishment, such as when the Senate's condemnation ofNero was implemented—leading to attacks on many of his statues[16]—but subsequently evaded with the enormous funeral he was given byVitellius. Similarly, it was often difficult to prevent later historians from "resurrecting" the memory of the sanctioned person.
The impossibility of actually erasing memory of an emperor has led scholars to conclude that this was not actually the goal ofdamnatio. Instead, they understanddamnatio:
not so much as an attempt to obliterate memory entirely as to transform honorific commemoration into a form of visible denigration. That is: the power of an act of damnatio relies, at least in part, on the viewer of a monument being able to supplement the gaps in an inscription with their own knowledge of whatthose gaps had once contained, and the reasons why the text had been removed
— Polly Low, "Remembering, Forgetting, and Rewriting the Past"[17]
These emperors are known to have been erased from monuments:[18]
TheDoge of VeniceMarino Faliero's portrait (right) was removed and painted over with a black shroud asdamnatio memoriae for his attempted coup. The shroud bears the Latin phrase, "This is the space for Marino Faliero, beheaded for crimes."
The practice of replacingpagan beliefs and motifs with Christian, and purposefully not recording the pagan history, has been compared todamnatio memoriae as well.[22]
In her bookMedici Women - Portraits of Power, Love and Betrayal, Gabrielle Langdon also presents compelling evidence concerning a probabledamnatio memoriae issued againstIsabella de' Medici, a prominent female figure of the 16th century Renaissance Medici court.[23]
Several apparentdamnatio memoriae incidents occurred within theMaya civilization during theClassic period (AD 250–900) as a result of political conflicts between leaders of the local kingdoms.
One notable incident occurred in the kingdom of Paʼ Chan (modern-dayYaxchilan,Mexico) in the middle of the 8th century. In June 742, thek'uhulajaw (Holy Lord, i.e. king) of Pa' Chan,Itzamnaaj Bahlam III, died after a 60-year-long rule, during which he turned his kingdom into one of great riches after a large number of military campaigns which were recorded and illustrated on multiple high-qualitystelae,lintels andhieroglyphic steps of temples which he dedicated to his military success (e.g. Temple 44) and his family (e.g. Temple 23). Though he had a son who eventually ascended to the throne after his death, there was a mysterious decade-longinterregnum period in which Pa' Chan did not record the existence of any king. Itzamnaaj Bahlam's son,Yaxun Bʼalam IV, also known as Bird Jaguar IV, ascended to the throne in April 752, nearly ten years after his father's death.[24]
Thisinterregnum period may be explained by a text from the nearby northern kingdom of Yokib (modern-dayPiedras Negras,Guatemala). Panel 3 of this city, largely regarded as one of the most beautiful pieces ofMayan art, was carved approximately in 782 and illustrates an episode of the reign ofItzam Kʼan Ahk II (also known as Pawaaj Kʼan Ahk II), in which he celebrated his firstkʼatun (period of 7200 days) as king, on 27 July 749. Panel 3 claims that the celebration "was witnessed by Sak Jukub Yopaat Bahlam, Holy Lord of Paʼ Chan." Also known as Yopaat Bahlam II, this mysterious ruler does not appear anywhere else in the historical record, not even in his supposed homeland. Moreoever, his respectful presence at a celebration in Yokib, Paʼ Chan's centuries-old and bitter rival (which had, in fact, scored a victory in battle against Itzamnaaj Bahlam III in 726), as well as the depiction of Itzam Kʼan Ahk apparently addressing a speech (now hardly readable, but probably involving an event of Paʼ Chan's past) toward a party from Paʼ Chan—which included his son and "heir to the throne" of Paʼ Chan (chʼok paʼchan ajaw), Sihyaj Ahkteʼ—, possibly indicate that he ruled as a vassal of Itzam Kʼan Ahk, or that he used the celebration as an opportunity to ask for Itzam Kʼan Ahk's support against Yaxun Bʼalam IV, his political rival.[25] This has led to the conclusion that if this man truly ruled Paʼ Chan, any records of his existence were destroyed during the reign of Yaxun Bʼalam IV, who notoriously led a massive propaganda campaign throughout his rule to claim legitimacy over the throne, which involved the rewriting of his kingdom's dynastic history and restoration of several historical records of previous kings. The immense texts writing Yaxun Bʼalam's own version of his kingdom's dynastic history may have been carved over existing records which would have been intentionally erased withplaster, possibly destroying the records of the king (or kings) of theinterregnum.[24]
It is possible Yopaat Bahlam and his son lived the rest of their lives in exile at Yokib, and that the "heir to the throne" never rose to power. Yopaat Bahlam may have been buried in Burial 13 of the city, judging from a text carved on fourSpondyluslimbatus shells found within it which bears his name and mentions that he had previously visited the city in January 747, also within theinterregnum.[25]
The Chapultepec portrait of Moctezuma II, made in 1519 and intentionally damaged in the middle of the 18th century, is the only surviving Chapultepec portrait of a Mexica monarch.
For instance,Moctezuma I (not to be confused with his more famous great-grandsonMoctezuma II), 15th-centuryhuei tlahtoani (Great Speaker, i.e. emperor) of theExcan Tlahtoloyan (lit. Triple Capital),[26] known by historians as the Mexica orAztec Empire (also known as the Aztec Triple Alliance, whose inhabitants referred to themselves as Culhua-Mexica), ordered the creation of a portrait of himself and of his military and political advisorTlacaelel atChapultepec, a historically and naturally important site which nowadays is withinMexico City. This became a tradition among subsequent Mexica rulers, and portraits ofAxayacatl andAhuizotl, two of Moctezuma's successors, were also made throughout the rest of the century (Tizoc's absence may be explained by his sudden death from poisoning). Moctezuma II would create the last portrait of this kind in 1519 (whichHajovsky (2015, p. 118) believes might be "the last Aztec monument"), at the eve of the Spanish conquest.
Antonio de León y Gama, a distinguished Mexican intellectual, wrote in the late 18th century that these portraits were well preserved up until that century. León y Gama claimed that the only portrait he got to see himself was Moctezuma II's, before its destruction was ordered by the authorities in 1753 or 1754. He mentioned that Axayacatl's portrait still existed earlier in that century before it was "broken up and removed." Indeed, the remains of Moctezuma's portrait, approximately 2 meters (over 6 feet) high, reveal that its damage was not accidental or natural. It was carved on pink-to-grayandesite, which is "slightly harder thanmarble," according to Hajovsky. The markings in the damaged parts show that apparently its destruction was executed with the dropping of a boulder, and that deep holes were drilled "perhaps in order to pry the stone apart or blow it up."
In another notorious instance, SpanishbishopJuan de Zumárraga ordered the destruction of a portrait depictingNezahualcoyotl, king ofTexcoco, on 7 July 1539, along with various other sculptures at the Hill ofTexcotzingo "in a manner such that they would no longer be remembered".[27]
During theMexican War of Independence, which started in 1810, one of the earliest revolutionary leaders,Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, nowadays remembered as anational Hero, was executed by the Spanish authorities in 1811. After his execution, according to contemporary accounts, the authorities declared adamnatio memoriae. According to one of Hidalgo's soldiers, Pedro García (1790–1873), "the fierce war against Hidalgo's memory and his ideas" was done through strict censorship.
It became illegal to speak about Hidalgo anywhere, it became a great crime that was severely punished. This is the reason why no portrait which resembles him at all is found anywhere in the country, since the prohibition lasted nearly ten years. Nobody felt safe speaking inside their homes.
The Spanish efforts to erase his memory, however, were in vain. The War of Independence continued, and the leaders who continued to revolution after Hidalgo's death made great efforts to commemorate his legacy.José María Morelos, for example, declared in 1813 that 16 September, the anniversary of the beginning of the war, would be celebrated every year "remembering always the merit of the great HeroDon Miguel Hidalgo and his partner DonIgnacio Allende."[28]
Nikolai Yezhov was posthumously removed from pictures after his 1940 execution
While completedamnatio memoriae has not been attempted in modern times—naming or writing about a person fallen from favour has never been made subject to formal punishment—there are several examples of less totaldamnatio memoriae in modern times.
In theSoviet Union, photos were retouched to remove individuals such asLeon Trotsky,[29]Nikolay Yezhov,[30] and evenStalin.[31] After Stalin ordered the murder ofGrigory Kulik's wife Kira Kulik-Simonich, all photographic records of her were destroyed; although she was described as very pretty, no photographs or other images of her survive.[32] Following their fall from favour,Lavrentiy Beria and others were removed from articles in theGreat Soviet Encyclopedia.[33]
The graphic designerDavid King had a strong interest in Soviet art and design, and amassed a collection of over 250,000 images. His most striking examples of before-and-after alterations were published asThe Commissar Vanishes.
Damnatio memoriae of the Soviet Union in post-Communist countries
Following thefall of communism in Eastern Europe, many communist statues, particularly of Lenin and Stalin, were removed from former Soviet satellite states.[34] Following a 2015 decision, a process ofdecommunization in Ukraine successfully dismantled all 1,320 statues ofLenin after its independence, as well as renaming roads and structures named under Soviet authority.[35]
19th century Polish writers often omitted mentioning two kings from the list of Polish monarchs,Bezprym andWenceslaus III of Bohemia, which has resulted in their being omitted from many later works as well.[36]
The treatment of Chinese politicianZhao Ziyang following his fall from grace inside theChinese Communist Party is regarded as another modern case ofdamnatio memoriae.[37]
The major paintingThe Founding Ceremony of the Nation has been modified several times as individuals depicted have fallen from political favour or been rehabilitated.[38]
The destruction of all copies ofThe Victory of Faith in order to eraseErnst Röhm is considered an act ofNazidamnatio memoriae.[39] In the end, two copies survived: one preserved in London and one preserved by the Communist government of East Germany.[40]
An instance ofdamnatio memoriae-esque policy instituted without governmental decree occurred in the aftermath of theJimmy Savile sexual abuse scandal. Following extensive accusations of sexually abusing underage, disabled, and dead individuals, various public institutions in the United Kingdom took extensive measures to remove posthumous relics of Savile's public presence.[42] This included taking down monuments and memorials to Savile[43][44] (including his headstone),[45][46] rechristening locations and awards previously named after him,[47] dissolving charity organizations named after him,[48] and suppressing episodes of television and radio shows which featured or explicitly referenced him.[42][49][50] In the immediate aftermath of the scandal, BBC News reporter Finlo Rohrer commented that "As bloggers have already noted, the Romans would have understood the Savile erasures asdamnatio memoriae [...] people will be able to see the spot where a plaque to him once rested. They may know that a path was once named after him."[42]
The practice is a key function of theBig Brother government inNineteen Eighty-Four byGeorge Orwell, associated with theNewspeak word "unperson" which has resultantly become another general synonym for it.TV Tropes uses this term in listing numerous other fictional cases.[51]
The term is used in modern scholarship to cover a wide array of official and unofficial sanctions through which the physical remnants and memories of a deceased individual are destroyed.[52][53]
Looking at cases ofdamnatio memoriae in modernIrish history,Guy Beiner has argued that iconoclastic vandalism only makesmartyrs of the "dishonored", thusensuring that they will be remembered for all time.[54] Nonetheless, Beiner goes on to argue that the purpose ofdamnatio memoriae—rather than being to erase people from history—was to guarantee only negative memories of those who were so dishonored.[54][55] Pointing out thatdamnatio memoriae did not erase people from history but in effect kept their memory alive,[55] Beiner concluded that those who partake in the destruction of a monument should be considered agents of memory.[56]
Author Charles Hedrick proposes that a distinction be made betweendamnatio memoriae (the condemnation of a deceased person) andabolitio memoriae (the actual erasure of another from historical texts).[57]
In case of removal of Soviet monuments inEastern Europe, the primary reason was that they were established as a symbol of occupation, domination orcult of personality, rather than simple historic mark. It has been pointed out that all Nazi-established monuments and street names have been removed afterWorld War II which has been perceived as natural reaction after liberation at that time.[58][59]
^Zawadzki, Stefan (2011). "Puścić w niepamięć, zachować złą pamięć: władcy w asyryjskich inskrypcjach królewskich w pierwszym tysiącleciu przed Chr." [Letting go, keep a bad memory: rulers in Assyrian royal inscriptions in the first millennium BC.]. In Gałaj-Dempniak, Renata; Okoń, Danuta; Semczyszyn, Magdalena (eds.).Damnatio memoriae w europejskiej kulturze politycznej [Damnatio memoriae in European political culture] (in Polish). IPN.ISBN978-83-61336-45-7.
^Byrne, S. G. (2010). "The Athenian damnatio memoriae of the Antigonids in 200 B.C.". In Tamis, A.; Mackie, C.J.; Byrne, S. G. (eds.).Philathenaios : studies in honour of Michael J. Osborne. Athēnai: Hellēnikē Epigraphikē Hetaireia. pp. 157–177.ISBN9789609929707.
^Herrera Meza, María del Carmen; López Austin, Alfredo; Martínez Baracs, Rodrigo (2013)."El nombre náhuatl de la Triple Alianza" [The Nahuatl name of the Triple Alliance].Estudios de cultura náhuatl (in Spanish).46:7–35.ISSN0071-1675. Retrieved31 May 2024.
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