Satellite image of Libya with Cyrenaica on the right side, showing the green Mediterranean coast in the north and the large desert in the centre and south
This mass is divided into two blocks. TheJebel Akhdar extends parallel to the coast from theGulf of Sidra to theGulf of Bomba and reaches an elevation of 882 meters. There is no continuous coastal plain, the longest strip running from the recess of Gulf of Sidra pastBenghazi toTolmeita. Thereafter, except for deltaic patches atSusa andDerna, the shore is all precipitous. A steep escarpment separates the coastal plain from a relatively level plateau, known as the Marj Plain, which lies at about 300 meters elevation. Above the Marj Plain lies a dissected plateau at about 700 meters elevation, which contains the highest peaks in the range.[4]
Areas ofred soil are found on the Marj Plain, which has borne abundant crops ofwheat andbarley from ancient times to the present day. Plenty of springs issue on the highlands. Wild olive trees are abundant, and large areas of oak savanna provide pasture to the flocks and herds of the localBedouins.[7] Historically large areas of range were covered in forest. The forested area of the Jebel Akhdar has been shrinking in recent decades. A 1996 report to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization estimated that the forested area was reduced to 320,000 hectares from 500,000 hectares, mostly cleared to grow crops.[6] The Green Mountain Conservation and Development Authority estimates that the forested area decreased from 500,000 hectares in 1976 to 180,000 hectares in 2007.[8]
The southward slopes of the Jebel Akhdar are occupied by theMediterranean dry woodlands and steppe, a transitional ecoregion lying between the Mediterranean climate regions of North Africa and the hyper-aridSahara.[9]
The lower Jebel el-Akabah lies to the south and east of the Jebel Akhdar. The two highlands are separated by a depression. This eastern region, known in ancient times asMarmarica, is much drier than the Jebel Akhdar and here the Sahara extends to the coast. Historically, salt-collecting and sponge fishing were more important than agriculture.Bomba andTobruk have good harbors.[7]
South of the coastal highlands of Cyrenaica is a large east–west running depression, extending eastward from the Gulf of Sidra into Egypt. This region of the Sahara is known as theLibyan Desert, and includes theGreat Sand Sea and theCalanshio Sand Sea. The Libyan Desert is home to a fewoases, includingAwjila andJaghbub.
Cyrenaica wascolonized by the Greeks beginning in the seventh century BC, when it was known asKyrenaïka. The first and most important colony was that ofCyrene, established in about 631 BC by colonists from the Greek island ofThera, which they had abandoned because of a severe famine.[11] Their commander, Aristoteles, took the Libyan name Battos.[12] His descendants, known as theBattiadae, persisted despite severe conflict with Greeks in neighboring cities.
The eastern portion of the province, with no major population centers, was calledMarmarica; the more important western portion was known as the Pentapolis, as it comprised five cities: Cyrene (near the modern village of Shahat) with its port ofApollonia (Marsa Susa), Arsinoe orTaucheira (Tocra),Euesperides or Berenice (near modernBenghazi), Balagrae (Bayda) andBarce (Marj) – of which the chief was the eponymous Cyrene.[11] The term "Pentapolis" continued to be used as a synonym for Cyrenaica. In the south, the Pentapolis faded into the Saharan tribal areas, including the pharaonic oracle ofAmmonium.
The region produced barley, wheat, olive oil, wine, figs, apples, wool, sheep, cattle, andsilphium, a herb that grew only in Cyrenaica and was regarded as a medicinal cure andaphrodisiac.[13]
Cyrene became one of the greatest intellectual and artistic centers of the Greek world, famous for its medical school, learned academies and architecture, which included some of the finest examples of theHellenistic style. TheCyrenaics, a school of thinkers who expounded a doctrine of moral cheerfulness that defined happiness as the sum of human pleasures, were founded byAristippus of Cyrene.[14] Other notable natives of Cyrene were the poetCallimachus and the mathematiciansTheodorus andEratosthenes.[13]
In 525 BC, after conquering Egypt, theAchaemenid (Persian) army ofCambyses II seized the Pentapolis, andestablished a satrapy (Achaemenid Persian province) over parts of the region for about the next two centuries.
The Persians were followed byAlexander the Great in 332 BC, who received tribute from the cities after taking Egypt.[11] The Pentapolis was formally annexed byPtolemy I Soter, and through him passed to thediadoch dynasty of the Lagids, better known as thePtolemaic dynasty. It briefly gained independence underMagas of Cyrene, stepson of Ptolemy I, but was reabsorbed into the Ptolemaic empire after his death. It was separated from the mainkingdom byPtolemy VIII and given to his sonPtolemy Apion, who, dying without heirs in 96 BC, bequeathed it to theRoman Republic.
The Latin nameCyrenaica (orKyrenika) dates to the first century BC. Although some confusion exists as to the exact territory Rome inherited, by 78 BC it was organized as one administrative province together withCrete. It became a senatorial province in 20 BC, like its far more prominent western neighborAfrica proconsularis, and unlikeEgypt itself, which became an imperial domainsui generis (under a special governor styledpraefectus augustalis) in 30 BC.
Diocletian'sTetrarchy reforms of 293 altered Cyrenaica's administrative structure. It was split into two provinces:Libya Superior orLibya Pentapolis, comprising the above-mentioned Pentapolis, with Cyrene as its capital, andLibya Inferior orLibya Sicca, comprising Marmarica, with the important port city ofParaetonium as its capital. Each came under a governor holding the modest rank ofpraeses. Both belonged to the Diocese of the Orient, with its capital at Antioch in Syria, and from 370, to theDiocese of Egypt, within thePraetorian prefecture ofOriens. Its western neighborTripolitania, the largest split-off from Africa proconsularis, became part of theDiocese of Africa, subordinate to theprefecture ofItalia et Africa. Following theCrete earthquake of 365, the capital was moved toPtolemais. After the Empire's division, Cyrenaica became part of the East Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire), bordering Tripolitania. It was briefly part of theVandal Kingdom to the west, until itsreconquest by Belisarius in 533.
TheTabula Peutingeriana showsPentapolites to the east ofSyrtes Maiores, indicating the cities of Bernice, Hadrianopolis, Taucheira, Ptolomaide, Callis, Cenopolis,Balacris and Cyrene.[15]
After being repeatedly destroyed and restored during the Roman period Pentapolis became a mere borough, but was nevertheless the site of a diocese. Its bishop,Zopyrus, was present at theFirst Council of Nicaea in 325. The subscriptions atEphesus (431) andChalcedon (451) give the names of two other bishops, Zenobius and Theodorus.
Although it retained the title "Pentapolis", the ecclesiastic province actually included all of the Cyrenaica, not just the five cities. Pentapolis is still included in the title of Popes of theCoptic Orthodox Church and theGreek Orthodox Church of Alexandria.
Cyrenaica was conquered by Muslim Arabs under command ofAmr ibn al-As during the tenure of the second caliph,Omar, inc. 642,[18] and became known asBarqah after its provincial capital, the ancient city ofBarce.[19] After the breakdown of theUmmayad caliphate it was essentially annexed to Egypt, although still under the same name, first under theFatimid caliphs. The region became a base for piracy, and many of the pirates acted asprivateers for the Fatimids.[20] Around 1051/52, Jabbara, emir of Barqa, transferred his allegiance from the Fatimids to theZirids.
In the middle of the 11th century, several Arab tribes, including the BedouinBanu Hilal confederation devastated the North African coast under Zirid control. Barqa was ravaged by the Hilalian invasion and left to be settled by theBanu Sulaym while the Banu Hilal marched westwards. The invasion contributed to the decline of the port cities and maritime trade.[21] Up to 200,000 Hilalian families migrated into Cyrenaica from Egypt. As a result of the migration by Arab tribes, Cyrenaica became more Arab than any place in theArab world except for the interior ofArabia.[22] TheAyyubid emir Qaraqush marched into the Maghreb and according to al-Maqrizi had taken control of Cyrenaica on orders ofSaladin who wanted to use the province as an agricultural base.[23] TheMamluks were seemingly unable to exert any significant control and had to ally with the resident Bedouins to accept theirsuzerainty indirectly while paying taxes.[23] TheOttoman Empire later claimed suzerainty of Cyrenaica based on the Mamluk claim of suzerainty through alliance with the tribes. Cyrenaica was subsumed intoOttoman Libya.[24]
In 1879, Cyrenaica became awilayah of the Ottoman Empire.[25] In 1888, it became amutasarrıfiyya under amutasarrif and was further divided into five qadaas. Thewali ofOttoman Tripolitania, however, looked after the military and judicial affairs. The bureaucratic setup was similar to the one in Tripoli. The mutasarrifate existed until the Italian invasion.[26]
The Italians occupied Cyrenaica during theItalo-Turkish War in 1911 and declared it an Italianprotectorate on 15 October 1912. Three days later, theOttoman Empire officially ceded the province to theKingdom of Italy. On 17 May 1919, Cyrenaica was established as anItalian colony, and, on 25 October 1920, the Italian government recognizedSheikh Sidi Idriss as the leader of theSenussi, who was granted the princely rank ofemir until 1929. In that year, Italy withdrew recognition of him and the Senussi. On 1 January 1934,Tripolitania, Cyrenaica, andFezzan were united as the Italian colony ofLibya.
The Italian fascists constructed theMarble Arch as a form of an imperial triumphal arch at the border between Cyrenaica and Tripolitani near the coast.
In 1949, Idris al-Senussi, with British backing, proclaimed the independentEmirate of Cyrenaica. This emirate became part of the Kingdom of Libya when it was established, and an independent kingdom on 24 December 1951, with Idris al-Senussi becoming King Idris.
In 2007, the Green Mountain Conservation and Development Authority, headed bySaif al-Islam Gaddafi, announced a regional plan for Cyrenaica, developed by the firmFoster and Partners. The plan, known as The Cyrene Declaration, aimed to revive Cyrenaica's agriculture, create a national park and develop the region as acultural andeco-tourism destination. The announced pilot projects included plans for three hotels, including the Cyrene Grand Hotel near the ruins of Cyrene.[29]
For much of theLibyan civil war, Cyrenaica was largely under the control of theNational Transitional Council while Tripolitania and Fezzan remained under Gaddafi's government control. Some proposed a "two-state solution" to the conflict, with Cyrenaica becoming an independent state,[30] but this concept was strongly rejected by both sides, and the three regions were united again in October 2011, as rebel forces took Tripolitania and Fezzan and the government collapsed.
^abcdGimingham, C. H. and K. Walton (1954). "Environment and the Structure of Scrub Communities on the Limestone Plateaux of Northern Cyrenaica."Journal of Ecology, Vol. 42, No. 2, Jul., 1954
^"Mediterranean woodlands and forests". WWF Scientific Report[1]. Accessed 27 March 2011
^abcEl-Darier, S. M. and F.M. El-Mogaspi (2009). "Ethnobotany and Relative Importance of Some Endemic Plant Species at El-Jabal El-Akhdar Region (Libya)".World Journal of Agricultural Sciences 5 (3): 353–360, 2009, pp 353–360.
^ab"Cyrenaica", fromEncyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, 1911
^The Report: Libya 2008, p. 134. Oxford Business Group.
^"North Saharan steppe and woodlands" WWF Scientific Report[2]. Accessed 27 March 2011.
^abRing, Trudy, Robert M. Salkin and Sharon La Boda (1996). "Cyrene (Gebel Akhdar, Libya)" inInternational Dictionary of Historic Places, Volume 4: Middle East and Africa. Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, Chicago and London.
^"Cyrenaica and the Greeks" fromThe Library of Congress Country Studies: Libya. 2001.[3]. Accessed 27 March 2011.
^Agricole Joseph F.X.P.E.S.P.A. Fortia d'Urban (marq. de), Bénigne Emmanuel C. Miller,Recueil des itinéraires anciens, comprenant l'itinéraire d'Antonin, la table de Peutinger, et un choix des périples grecs, 1845,p. 286
^Goitein, S. D. (1999).A Mediterranean Society The Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents of the Cairo Geniza, Vol. I: Economic Foundations. University of California Press. pp. 327–328.ISBN9780520221581.
^Stewart, John (1996) "Cyrenaica"The British Empire: An Encyclopedia of the Crown's Holdings, 1493 through 1995 McFarland & Co., Jefferson, North Carolina, p. 125,ISBN0-7864-0177-X
^Associated Press, 'Libyan Opposition to Khadafy Growing but Fragmented Says Expert,' 17 April 1986.
^Rose, Steve. "Gadafy's green vision".The Guardian 12 September 2007. Accessed 2 April 2011.[4]
Cyrenaica in Antiquity (Society for Libyan Studies Occasional Papers). Graeme Barker, John Lloyd, Joyce ReynoldsISBN0-86054-303-X
Sandro Lorenzatti,Note archeologiche e topografiche sull’itinerario da Derna a Cirene seguito da Claude Le Maire (1706), in "L'Africa romana XX", Roma 2015, vol. 2, pp. 955–970.
As found in theNotitia Dignitatum. Provincial administration reformed anddioceses established byDiocletian,c. 293. Permanentpraetorian prefectures established after the death ofConstantine I. Empire permanently partitioned after 395. Exarchates ofRavenna andAfrica established after 584. After massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the remaining provinces were superseded by thetheme system in c. 640–660, although inAsia Minor and parts of Greece they survived under the themes until the early 9th century.
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