Cyprian Norwid | |
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 Norwid in 1871 | |
| Born | (1821-09-24)24 September 1821 |
| Died | 23 May 1883(1883-05-23) (aged 61) Paris,French Third Republic |
| Occupation |
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| Language | Polish |
| Period | 1840–1883 |
| Genre | |
| Notable works |
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| Relatives | Ludwik Norwid [pl] (brother) |
| Signature | |
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Cyprian Kamil Norwid[a] (Polish pronunciation:[ˈt͡sɨprjanˈnɔrvit];24 September 1821 – 23 May 1883) was a Polishpoet,dramatist,painter,sculptor, andphilosopher. He is now considered one of the four most importantPolish Romantic poets, though scholars still debate whether he is more aptly described as a lateromantic or an earlymodernist.
Norwid led a tragic, often poverty-stricken life. He experienced mounting health problems, unrequited love, harsh critical reviews, and increasing social isolation. For most of his life he lived abroad, having left Polish lands in his twenties. Having briefly travelled acrossWestern Europe in his youth, and briefly travelling to United States, where he worked as an illustrator, he lived chiefly in Paris, where he eventually died.
Considered a "rising star" in his youth, Norwid's original, nonconformist style was not appreciated in his lifetime. Partly due to this, he was excluded from high society. His work was rediscovered and appreciated only after his death by theYoung Poland movement of the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries. Today his most influential work is considered to beVade-mecum, a vast anthology of verse he finished in 1866. Much of his work, includingVade-mecum, remained unpublished during his lifetime.
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Cyprian Norwid was born on 24 September 1821 into a family ofPolish–Lithuanian minor nobility bearing theTopór coat of arms,[3]: 3 [4]: v in theMasovian village ofLaskowo-Głuchy nearWarsaw,[5]: 3 His father was a minor government official.[4]: v One of his maternal ancestors was the King of Poland and Grand Duke ofLithuaniaJohn III Sobieski.[4]: v [6]: 160
Cyprian Norwid and his brotherLudwik Nordwid [pl] were orphaned early. His mother died when Cyprian was four years old, and in 1835 his father also died: Norwid was 14 at the time.[4]: v [7] For most of their childhood, Cyprian and his brother were educated at Warsaw schools.[7] In 1836 Norwid interrupted his schooling (not having completed the fifth grade)[4]: v–vi and entered a private school of painting, studying underAleksander Kokular andJan Klemens Minasowicz [pl].[4]: vi [7] His incomplete formal education forced him to become anautodidact, and eventually he learned a dozen languages.[4]: viii [8]: 28 [9]: 268
Norwid's first foray into the literary sphere occurred in the periodicalPiśmiennictwo Krajowe, which published his first poem,Mój ostatni sonet (My Last Sonnet), in 1840s issue 8.[3]: 11 [10]: 34 That year he published ten poems and one short story.[4]: vi His early poems were well received by critics and he became a welcome guest at the literarysalons of Warsaw; his personality of that time is described as that of a "dandy" and a "rising star" of the young generation of Polish poets.[9]: 268–269 [4]: vii–viii In 1841–1842 he travelled through theCongress Poland withWładysław Wężyk [pl].[7][4]: ix
In 1842 Norwid received inheritance funds as well as a private scholarship to study sculpture and left Poland, never to return.[4]: ix [7][9]: 269 First he went toDresden in Germany. He later also visitedVenice andFlorence in Italy; in Florence he signed up for a course in sculpture at theAccademia di Belle Arti di Firenze.[7] His visit toVerona resulted in a well-received poemW Weronie [pl] (In Verona) published several years later.[4]: x After he settled in Rome in 1844, where for several years he became a regular atCaffè Greco,[9]: 269 his fiancée Kamila broke off their engagement.[11] Later he metMaria Kalergis, née Nesselrode; they became acquaintances, but his courtship of her, and later, of her lady-in-waiting, Maria Trebicka, ended in failure.[7] The poet then travelled to Berlin, where he participated in university lectures and meetings with localPolonia. It was a time when Norwid made many new social, artistic and political contacts. At that time he also lost his Russian passport, and after he refused to join the Russian diplomatic service, the Russian authorities confiscated his estate. He was also arrested for trying to cross back to Russia without his passport, and his short stay in Berlin prison resulted in partialdeafness.[7][9]: 269 [12] After being forced to leavePrussia in 1846, Norwid went toBrussels.[7] During the EuropeanRevolutions of 1848, he stayed in Rome, where he met fellow Polish intellectualsAdam Mickiewicz andZygmunt Krasiński.[7]
During 1849–1852, Norwid lived in Paris, where he met fellow PolesFrédéric Chopin andJuliusz Słowacki,[7] as well as other emigree artists such as RussiansIvan Turgenev andAlexander Herzen, and other intellectuals such asJules Michelet (many atEmma Herwegh's salon).[13]: 28 [14]: 816 Financial hardship, unrequited love, political misunderstandings, and a negative critical reception of his works put Norwid in a dire situation. He lived in poverty, sometimes forced to work as a simple manual laborer.[9]: 269 He also suffered from progressiveblindness anddeafness, but still managed to publish some content in the Polish-language Parisian publicationGoniec polski and similar venues.[9]: 269 [15][16] 1849 saw several of his poems published, those included among others hisPieśń społeczna [pl] (Social Song).[14]: 816 Some of his other notable works from that period include thedramaZwolon [pl] and the philosophical poem-treaty about the nature of art,Promethidion [pl], both published in 1851.[7][17]Promethidion, a long treatise onaesthetics in verse, has been called "the first important piece of Norwid's writing".[14]: 814 It was, however, not well received by contemporary critics.[14]: 816 That year also saw him finishing the manuscripts for the dramasKrakus [pl] andWanda [pl][18][19] and the poemBema pamięci żałobny rapsod (A Funeral Rhapsody in Memory of General Bem).[20][21]
Norwid decided to emigrate to the United States in the Fall of 1852, receiving some sponsorship fromWladysław Zamoyski, a Polish nobleman and philanthropist.[22]: 190 On 11 February 1853, after a harrowing journey, he arrived inNew York City aboard theMargaret Evans, and he held a number of odd jobs there, including at a graphics firm.[23][24] He was involved in the creation of the memorial album of theCrystal Palace Exhibition and theExhibition of the Industry of All Nations.[9]: 269 [14]: 816 [24] By autumn, he learned about the outbreak of theCrimean War. This, as well as his disappointment with America, which he felt lacked "history", made him consider a return to Europe, and he wrote to Mickiewicz and Herzen, asking for their assistance.[9]: 269 [23]
During April 1854, Norwid returned to Europe with PrinceMarceli Lubomirski [pl]. He lived in England and with Krasiński's help he was finally able to return to Paris by December that year.[23] Over the next few years Norwid was able to publish several works, such as the poemQuidam. Przypowieść [pl] (Quidam. A Story, 1857) and stories collected inCzarne kwiaty [pl] (Black Flowers) andBiałe kwiaty [pl] (White Flowers), published inCzas [pl] in 1856–1857.[7][14]: 815–816 [25] He gave a well-received series of six lectures on Juliusz Słowacki in 1860, published the next year.[14]: 816 1862 saw the publication of some of his poems in an anthologyPoezje (Poems) at Brockhaus inLeipzig.[b][14]: 816 [9]: 269 He took a very keen interest in the outbreak of the 1863January Uprising (a Polish–Lithuanian revolt against the Russian Empire). Although he could not participate personally due to his poor health, Norwid hoped to personally influence the outcome of the event by establishing a newspaper or magazine; that project however did not come to fruition.[27] His 1865Fortepian Szopena [pl] (Chopin's Piano) is seen as one of his works reacting to the January Uprising.[28][13]: 54–58 The poem's theme is theRussian troops' 1863defenestration of Chopin'spiano from the music school Norwid attended in his youth.[29][30][31]: 514–515
Norwid continued writing, but most of his work met with little recognition. He grew to accept this, and even wrote in one his works that "the sons pass by this writing, but you, my distant grandchild, will read it... when I'll be no more" (Klaskaniem mając obrzękłe prawice... [pl],The Hands Were Swollen by Clapping..., 1858).[14]: 814
In 1866, the poet finished his work onVade-mecum, a vast anthology of verse. However, despite his greatest efforts it could not be published until decades later.[7][32]: 375–378 [33] One of the reasons for this included PrinceWładysław Czartoryski failing to grant the poet the loan he had promised. In subsequent years, Norwid lived in extreme poverty and suffered fromtuberculosis.[13]: 60 During theFranco-Prussian War of 1870, many of his friends and patrons were distracted with the global events: Norwid experienced starvation, and his health further deteriorated.[14]: 816 Material hardships did not stop him from writing: in 1869 he wroteRzecz o wolności słowa [pl] (A Poem About the Freedom of the Word), a long treatise in verse about the history ofwords, which was well received at that time. The next year he wroteAssunta [pl], a poem reflecting his views on Christian love, which Hungarian poetGeorge Gömöri called Norwid's "most successful narrative poem".[14]: 815 [34] Those years also saw him write three more plays, comediesAktor. Komediodrama [pl] (Actor. Comedy-drama, 1867),Za kulisami [pl] (Behind the Scenes, 1865–1866), andPierścień Wielkiej Damy [pl] (The Ring of a Grand Lady, 1872), which Gömöri praised as Norwid's "real genre within the theater".[14]: 815 The latter play became Norwid's most frequently performed theater piece, although like many of his works, it gained recognition long after his death (published in print in 1933, and staged in 1936).[14]: 815 [35][36]: 291 [c]
In 1877 his cousin,Michał Kleczkowski [pl] relocated Norwid to theSt. Casimir's Institute nursing home [pl] (Œuvre de Saint Casimir) on the outskirts of Paris inIvry.[7][14]: 816 [37] That location, run by Polish nuns, was home to many destitute Polish emigrants.[7][9]: 270 There, Norwid was befriended byTeodor Jełowicki who also gave him material support.[38]: 276 Some of his final works include a comedy playMiłość czysta u kąpieli morskich [pl] (Pure Love at Sea Baths, 1880), the philosophical treatesieMilczenie [pl] (Silence, 1882), and novelsAd leones! [pl] (written c. 1881–1883),Stygmat (Stigmata, 1881–82) andTajemnica lorda Singelworth (The Secret of Lord Singelworth, 1883).[39] Throughout his life, he also wrote many letters, over a thousand of which survived to be studied by scholars.[7]
During the last months of his life, Norwid was weak and bed-ridden. He frequently wept and refused to speak with anyone. He died in the morning of 23 May 1883.[7] Jełowicki and Kleczkjowski personally covered the burial costs, and Norwid's funeral was also attended byFranciszek Duchiński andMieczysław Geniusz [pl].[40] After 15 years the funds to maintain his grave dried out and his body was moved to a mass grave of Polish emigrants.[7]
Norwid's early style could be classified as belonging within the romanticism tradition, but it soon evolved beyond it.[7][14]: 814 [41]: 5 Some scholars consider Norwid to represent lateromanticism, while others see him as an earlymodernist.[7][14]: 814 Polish literary critics,Przemysław Czapliński [pl], Tamara Trojanowska and Joanna Niżyńska described Norwid as "a 'late child' and simultaneously a great critic of Romanticism" and "the first post-Romantic poet [of Poland]".[42]: 68 Danuta Borchardt who translated some of Norwid's poems to English wrote that "Norwid's work belongs to late Romanticism. However, he was so original that scholars cannot pigeonhole his work into any specific literary period".[41]: 5 Czesław Miłosz, a Polish poet and Nobel laureate, wrote that "[Norwid] preserved complete independence from the literary currents of the day".[9]: 271 This could be seen in his short stories, which went against the common trend in the 19th century to write realistic prose and instead are more aptly described as "modernparables".[9]: 279
Critics and literary historians eventually concluded that during his life, Norwid was rejected by his contemporaries as his works were too unique. His style increasingly departing from then-prevailing forms and themes found in romanticism andpositivism, and the subjects of his works were also often not aligned with the political views of theemigre Poles.[7][43][44] His style was criticized for "being obscure and overly cerebral" and having a "jarring syntax".[41]: 5 [9]: 268 Even today, a number of scholars refer to his works, in this context, as "dark", meaning "weird" or "difficult to understand".[45]
While Norwid did not createneologisms, he would change words creating new variations of existing language, and he also experimented with syntax and punctuation, for example through the use ofhyphenated words, which are uncommon in the Polish language. Much of his work is rhymed, although some is seen as a precursor tofree verse that later became more common in Polish poetry.[41]: 5 Miłosz noted that Norwid was "against aestheticism", and that he aimed to "break the monotony... of the syllabic pattern", purposefully making his verses "roughhewn".[9]: 271
While Norwid displays a Romantic admiration for heroes, he almost never addresses the concept ofromantic love.[14]: 814 Norwid attempted to start new types of literary works, for example "high comedy" and "bloodless white tragedy". His works are considered to be deeply philosophical and utilitarian, and he rejected "art for art's sake".[7][9]: 279–280 He is seen as a harsh critic of the Polish society as well as ofmass culture. His portrayal of women characters has been praised as more developed than that of many of his contemporaries, whose female characters were more one-dimensional.[7] Borchardt summarized his ideas as "that of a man deeply distressed by and disappointed in mankind, yet hopeful of its eventual redemption".[41]: 5 Miłosz pointed out that Norwid used irony (comparing his use of it toJules Laforgue orT. S. Eliot), but it was "so hidden within symbols and parables" that it was often missed by most readers. He also argued that Norwid is "undoubtedly... the most 'intellectual' poet to ever write in Polish", although lack of audience has "permitted him to indulge in such a torturing of the language that some of his lines are hopelessely obscure".[9]: 271–272, 275, 278
Norwid's works featured more than purely Polish context, employing pan-European, Greco-Christian symbology.[14]: 814 They also endorsed orthodox Christian,Roman Catholic views;[7] in fact Gömöri argues that one of his major themes was "the state and future of Christian civilization".[14]: 814 Miłosz similarly noted that Norwid did not reject civilization, although he was critical of some of its aspects; he saw history as a story of progress "to make martyrdom unnecessary on Earth".[9]: 272–275 Historical references are common in Norwid's work, which Miłosz describes as affected by "intensehistoricism".[9]: 279 Norwid's stay in America also made him a supporter of theabolitionist movement, and in 1859 he wrote two poems aboutJohn BrownDo obywatela Johna Brown (To Citizen John Brown) andJohn Brown.[9]: 269 [46] Another recurring motif in his work was the importance oflabor, particularly in the context of artistic work, with his discussions of issues such as how artists should be compensated in thecapitalistic society - although Miłosz noted that Norwid was not asocialist.[7][14]: 814 [9]: 273–274
Norwid's work has also been treated as deeply philosophical.[8][47] Miłosz also noted that some consider Norwid to be a philosopher more than an artist, and indeed Norwid has inspired, among others, philosophers such asStanisław Brzozowski. Nonetheless, Miłosz disagrees with that notion, quotingMieczysław Jastrun who wrote that Norwid was "first of all, an artist, but an artist for whom the most interesting material is thought, reflection, the cultural experience of mankind".[9]: 280
Following his death, many of Norwid's works were forgotten; it was not until the early 20th century, in theYoung Poland period, that his finesse and style was appreciated.[9]: 266 [41]: 6 At that time, his work was discovered and popularised byZenon Przesmycki, a Polish poet and literary critic who was a member of thePolish Academy of Literature. Przesmycki started republishing Norwid's works c. 1897, and created an enduring image of him, one of "the dramatic legend of the cursed poet".[7][9]: 270 [48]
Norwid's "Collected Works" (Dzieła Zebrane) were published in 1966 byJuliusz Wiktor Gomulicki [pl], a Norwid biographer and commentator. The full iconic collection of Norwid's work was released during the period 1971–1976 asPisma Wszystkie ("Collected Works"). Comprising 11 volumes, it includes all of Norwid's poetry as well as his letters and reproductions of his artwork.[49][50]
On 24 September 2001, 118 years after his death, an urn with soil from the collective grave where Norwid had been interred in Paris' Montmorency cemetery was buried in the "Crypts of the Bards [pl]" atWawel Cathedral. There, Norwid's remains were placed next to those of fellow Polish poets Adam Mickiewicz and Juliusz Słowacki. During a mass held at the cathedral, the Archbishop of Kraków, cardinalFranciszek Macharski said that the doors of the crypt have opened "to receive the great poet, Cyprian Norwid, into Wawel's royal cathedral, for he was an equal of kings".[51][52][53]
In 2021, on the 200th anniversary of Norwid's birth, the brothersStephen andTimothy Quay produced a short film titledVade-mecum about the poet's life and work in an attempt to promote his legacy among foreign audiences.[54][55]
Norwid is often considered the fourth more important poet of the Polish romanticism, and called the Fourth of theThree Bards.[42]: 68 In fact, some literary critics of the late 20th-century Poland were skeptical as to the value of Krasiński's work and considered Norwid to be theThird bard instead ofFourth.[56][57]: 276 [58]: 8 Well known in Poland, and a part of Polish school's curricula, Norwid nonetheless remains obscure in English-speaking world.[44] He has been praised as the best poet of the 19th century byJoseph Brodsky andTomas Venclova.[59] Miłosz notes he has become recognized as a "precusor of modern Polish poetry".[9]: 268
The life and work of Norwid have been subject to a number of scholarly treatments. Those include the English-language collection of essays about him, published after a 1983 conference held to commemorate century since his death (Cyprian Norwid (1821–1883): Poet - Thinker - Craftsman, 1988)[60] or monographs such asJacek Lyszczyna [pl]'s (2016)Cyprian Norwid. Poeta wieku dziewiętnastego (Cyprian Norwid. A Poet of the Nineteenth Century).[8] An academic journal dedicated to the study of Norwid,Studia Norwidiana [pl], has been published since 1983.[61]
Norwid authored numerous works, from poems, both epic and short, to plays, short stories, essays and letters. During his lifetime, according to Miłosz[9]: 269 and Gömöri,[14]: 816 he published only one large volume of poetry (in 1862)[a] (although Borchardt mentions another volume from 1866[41]: 6 ). Borchardt considers his major works to beVade-mecum,Promethidion andAd leones!.[41]: 6 Miłosz acknowledgedVade-mecum as Norwid's most influential work, but also praised the earlierBema pamięci rapsod żałobny as one of his most famous poems.[9]: 272–275
Norwid's most extensive work,Vade-mecum, written between 1858 and 1865, was first published a century after his death.[33] Some of Norwid's works have been translated into English byWalter Whipple andDanuta Borchardt in theUnited States of America, and byJerzy Pietrkiewicz andAdam Czerniawski inBritain.[62][63] A number have also received translations to other languages, such asBengali,[64] French,[65] German,[66] Italian,[67] Russian,[68] Slovakian[69] and Ukrainian.[70]
From May 2024, an autograph copy ofVade-mecum is presented at apermanent exhibition in the Palace of the Commonwealth.[71][72] There are also presented two albumsOrbis I andOrbis II, containing Norwid's original works and copies of works in various media, in addition to hand written notes, magazine cuttings and photographs.[72]
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