  | |
| Observation data Epoch J2000 Equinox J2000 | |
|---|---|
| Constellation | Cygnus[1] |
| Right ascension | 19h 58m 21.67574s[2] |
| Declination | +35° 12′ 05.7845″[2] |
| Apparent magnitude (V) | 8.72 - 8.93[3] |
| Characteristics | |
| Spectral type | O9.7Iab[4] |
| U−Bcolor index | −0.30[5] |
| B−Vcolor index | +0.81[5] |
| Variable type | Ellipsoidal variable[3] |
| Astrometry | |
| Radial velocity (Rv) | −2.70±3.2[4] km/s |
| Proper motion (μ) | RA: −3.812±0.015mas/yr[2] Dec.: −6.310±0.017mas/yr[2] |
| Parallax (π) | 0.4439±0.0159 mas[2] |
| Distance | 7,300 ± 300 ly (2,250 ± 80 pc) |
| Absolute magnitude (MV) | −6.5±0.2[6] |
| Details[7] | |
| Black hole | |
| Mass | 13.8 to17.5+2.0 −1.0 M☉ |
| Supergiant | |
| Mass | 29+6 −3 M☉ |
| Radius | 22.9+1.5 −2.5 R☉ |
| Luminosity | 320,000+82,000 −65,000 L☉ |
| Surface gravity (log g) | 3.17±0.10 cgs |
| Temperature | 28,500±1,000 K |
| Age | 4.8-7.6[8] Myr |
| Other designations | |
| V1357 Cygni,BD+34°3815,HD 226868, HDE 226868,HIP 98298,SAO 69181[4] | |
| Database references | |
| SIMBAD | data |
Cygnus X-1 (abbreviatedCyg X-1)[9] is a galacticX-ray source in theconstellationCygnus and was the first such source widely accepted to be ablack hole.[10][11] It was discovered in 1964 during arocket flight and is one of thestrongest X-ray sources detectable from Earth, producing a peak X-rayflux density of2.3×10−23 W/(m2⋅Hz) (2.3×103 jansky).[12][13] It remains among the most studiedastronomical objects in its class. The compact object is now estimated to have a mass about 21.2 times themass of the Sun[14][15] and has been shown to be too small to be any known kind of normal star or other likely object besides a black hole.[16] If so, the radius of itsevent horizon has300 km "as upper bound to the linear dimension of the source region" of occasional X-ray bursts lasting only for about 1 ms.[17]
Cygnus X-1 is a high-massX-ray binary system located about 7,000light-years away,[14] that includes a bluesupergiantvariable star.[18] The supergiant and black hole are separated by about 0.2 AU, or 20% of the distance from Earth to the Sun. Astellar wind from the star provides material for anaccretion disk around the X-ray source.[19] Matter in the inner disk is heated to millions of degrees, generating the observed X-rays.[20][21] A pair ofrelativistic jets, arrangedperpendicularly to the disk, are carrying part of the energy of the infalling material away into interstellar space.[22]
This system may belong to astellar association called Cygnus OB3, which would mean that Cygnus X-1 is about 5 million years old and formed from aprogenitor star that had more than40 solar masses. The majority of the star's mass was shed, most likely as a stellar wind. If this star had then exploded as asupernova, the resulting force would most likely have ejected the remnant from the system. Hence the star may have instead collapsed directly into a black hole.[23]
Cygnus X-1 was the subject of afriendly scientific wager between physicistsStephen Hawking andKip Thorne in 1975, with Hawking—betting that it was not a black hole—hoping to lose.[24] Hawking conceded the bet in 1990 after observational data had strengthened the case that there was indeed ablack hole in the system.[25]
Observation of X-ray emissions allowsastronomers to study celestial phenomena involving gas with temperatures in the millions of degrees. However, because X-ray emissions are blocked byEarth's atmosphere, observation ofcelestial X-ray sources is not possible without lifting instruments to altitudes where the X-rays can penetrate.[26][27] Cygnus X-1 was discovered usingX-ray instruments that were carried aloft by asounding rocket launched fromWhite Sands Missile Range inNew Mexico. As part of an ongoing effort to map these sources, a survey was conducted in 1964 using twoAerobee suborbital rockets. The rockets carriedGeiger counters to measure X-ray emission inwavelength range 1–15 Å across an 8.4° section of the sky. These instruments swept across the sky as the rockets rotated, producing a map of closely spaced scans.[9]
As a result of these surveys, eight new sources of cosmic X-rays were discovered, including Cyg XR-1 (later Cyg X-1) in the constellation Cygnus. Thecelestial coordinates of this source were estimated asright ascension 19h53m anddeclination 34.6°. It was not associated with any especially prominentradio oroptical source at that position.[9]
Seeing a need for longer-duration studies, in 1963Riccardo Giacconi andHerb Gursky proposed the first orbital satellite to study X-ray sources.NASA launched theirUhuru satellite in 1970,[28] which led to the discovery of 300 new X-ray sources.[29] Extended Uhuru observations of Cygnus X-1 showed fluctuations in the X-ray intensity that occurs several times a second.[30] This rapid variation meant that the X-ray generation must occur over a compact region no larger than ~105 km (roughly the size ofJupiter),[31] as thespeed of light restricts communication between more distant regions.
In April–May 1971, Luc Braes and George K. Miley fromLeiden Observatory, and independently Robert M. Hjellming and Campbell Wade at theNational Radio Astronomy Observatory,[32] detected radio emission from Cygnus X-1, and their accurate radio position pinpointed the X-ray source to the star AGK2 +35 1910 = HDE 226868.[33][34] On thecelestial sphere, this star lies about half adegree from the4th-magnitude starEta Cygni.[35] It is a supergiant star that is by itself incapable of emitting the observed quantities of X-rays. Hence, the star must have a companion that could heat gas to the millions of degrees needed to produce the radiation source for Cygnus X-1.
Louise Webster andPaul Murdin, at theRoyal Greenwich Observatory,[36] andCharles Thomas Bolton, working independently at theUniversity of Toronto'sDavid Dunlap Observatory,[37] announced the discovery of a massive hidden companion to HDE 226868 in 1972. Measurements of theDoppler shift of the star's spectrum demonstrated the companion's presence and allowed its mass to be estimated from the orbital parameters.[38] Based on the high predicted mass of the object, they surmised that it may be ablack hole, as the largest possibleneutron star cannot exceed three times themass of the Sun.[39]
With further observations strengthening the evidence, by the end of 1973 the astronomical community generally conceded that Cygnus X-1 was most likely a black hole.[40][41] More precise measurements of Cygnus X-1 demonstrated variability down to a singlemillisecond. This interval is consistent withturbulence in a disk of accreted matter surrounding a black hole—theaccretion disk. X-ray bursts that last for about a third of a second match the expected time frame of matter falling toward a black hole.[42]
Cygnus X-1 has since been studied extensively using observations by orbiting and ground-based instruments.[4] The similarities between the emissions of X-ray binaries such as HDE 226868/Cygnus X-1 andactive galactic nuclei suggests a common mechanism of energy generation involving a black hole, an orbiting accretion disk and associatedjets.[43] For this reason, Cygnus X-1 is identified among a class of objects calledmicroquasars; an analog of thequasars, or quasi-stellar radio sources, now known to be distant active galactic nuclei. Scientific studies of binary systems such as HDE 226868/Cygnus X-1 may lead to further insights into the mechanics ofactive galaxies.[44]
Theblack hole andblue supergiant star form abinary system in which they orbit around theircenter of mass every 5.599829 days.[45] From the perspective of Earth, the compact object never goes behind the other star; in other words, the system does noteclipse. However, theinclination of the orbital plane to theline of sight from Earth remains uncertain, with predictions ranging from 27° to 65°. A 2007 study estimated the inclination as48.0±6.8°, which would mean that thesemi-major axis is about0.2 AU, or 20% of the distance from Earth to the Sun. Theorbital eccentricity is thought to be only0.018±0.002, meaning a nearly circular orbit.[46][47] The system is expected to merge into a singleblack hole in five billion years, possibly generatinggravitational waves during the process.[7]
The HDE 226868/Cygnus X-1 system shares a common motion through space with an association of massive stars named Cygnus OB3, which is roughly 7,000 light-years distant. This implies that HDE 226868, Cygnus X-1 and thisOB association may have formed at the same time and location. If so, then the age of the system is about5±1.5 million years. The motion of HDE 226868 with respect to Cygnus OB3 is9±3 km/s, a typical value for random motion within a stellar association. HDE 226868 is about60 parsecs from the center of the association and could have reached that separation in about7±2 million years—which roughly agrees with estimated age of the association.[23] The distance to Cyg X-1 is calculated by trigonometric parallax as 1,860 ± 120parsecs (6,070 ± 390light-years),[49] and by radio astrometry as 2,220 ± 170 parsecs (7,240 ± 550 ly).[14]
With agalactic latitude of 4° andgalactic longitude 71°,[4] this system lies inward along the sameOrion Spur, in which the Sun is located within theMilky Way,[50] near where the spur approaches theSagittarius Arm. Cygnus X-1 has been described as belonging to the Sagittarius Arm,[51] though the structure of the Milky Way is not well established.
From various techniques, the mass of the compact object appears to be greater than the maximum mass for aneutron star. Stellar evolutionary models suggest a mass of20±5 solar masses,[52] while other techniques resulted in 10 solar masses. Measuring periodicities in the X-ray emission near the object yielded a more precise value of14.8±1 solar masses. In all cases, the object is most likely a black hole[46][53]—a region of space with agravitational field that is strong enough to prevent the escape ofelectromagnetic radiation from the interior. The boundary of this region is called theevent horizon and has an effective radius called theSchwarzschild radius, which is about44 km for Cygnus X-1. Anything (includingmatter andphotons) that passes through this boundary is unable to escape.[54] Measurements published in 2021 yielded an estimated mass of21.2±2.2 solar masses.[14][15] A 2025 study estimate a mass of 17.5solar masses, which may be just an upper limit, with another method yielding 13.8 M☉.[7]
Evidence of just such an event horizon may have been detected in 1992 usingultraviolet (UV) observations with theHigh Speed Photometer on theHubble Space Telescope. As self-luminous clumps of matter spiral into a black hole, their radiation is emitted in a series of pulses that are subject togravitational redshift as the material approaches the horizon. That is, thewavelengths of the radiation steadily increase, as predicted bygeneral relativity. Matter hitting a solid, compact object would emit a final burst of energy, whereas material passing through an event horizon would not. Two such "dying pulse trains" were observed, which is consistent with the existence of a black hole.[55]
The spin of the compact object is not yet well determined. Past analysis of data from the space-basedChandra X-ray Observatory suggested that Cygnus X-1 was not rotating to any significant degree.[56][57] However, evidence announced in 2011 suggests that it is rotating extremely rapidly, approximately 790 times per second.[58]
The largest star in the Cygnus OB3 association has a mass 40 times that of the Sun. As more massive stars evolve more rapidly, this implies that the progenitor star for Cygnus X-1 had more than 40 solar masses. Given the current estimated mass of the black hole, the progenitor star must have lost over 30 solar masses of material. Part of this mass may have been lost to HDE 226868, while the remainder was most likely expelled by a strong stellar wind. Thehelium enrichment of HDE 226868's outer atmosphere may be evidence for this mass transfer.[59] Possibly the progenitor may have evolved into aWolf–Rayet star, which ejects a substantial proportion of its atmosphere using just such a powerful stellar wind.[23]
If the progenitor star had exploded as asupernova, then observations of similar objects show that the remnant would most likely have been ejected from the system at a relatively high velocity. As the object remained in orbit, this indicates that the progenitor may have collapsed directly into a black hole without exploding (or at most produced only a relatively modest explosion).[23]
The compact object is thought to be orbited by a thin, flat disk of accreting matter known as anaccretion disk. This disk is intensely heated by friction between ionized gas in faster-moving inner orbits and that in slower outer ones. It is divided into a hot inner region with a relatively high level of ionization—forming aplasma—and a cooler, less ionized outer region that extends to an estimated 500 times the Schwarzschild radius,[21] or about 15,000 km.
Though highly and erratically variable, Cygnus X-1 is typically the brightest persistent source ofhard X-rays—those with energies from about 30 up to several hundred kiloelectronvolts—in the sky.[27] The X-rays are produced as lower-energy photons in the thin inner accretion disk, then given more energy throughCompton scattering with very high-temperatureelectrons in a geometrically thicker, but nearly transparentcorona enveloping it, as well as by some further reflection from the surface of the thin disk.[61] An alternative possibility is that the X-rays may be Compton-scattered by the base of a jet instead of a disk corona.[62]
The X-ray emission from Cygnus X-1 can vary in a somewhat repetitive pattern calledquasi-periodic oscillations (QPO). The mass of the compact object appears to determine the distance at which the surrounding plasma begins to emit these QPOs, with the emission radius decreasing as the mass decreases. This technique has been used to estimate the mass of Cygnus X-1, providing a cross-check with other mass derivations.[63]
Pulsations with a stable period, similar to those resulting from the spin of a neutron star, have never been seen from Cygnus X-1.[64][65] Thepulsations from neutron stars are caused by the neutron star's rotating magnetic field, but theno-hair theorem guarantees that the magnetic field of a black hole is exactly aligned with its rotation axis and thus is static. For example, the X-ray binaryV 0332+53 was thought to be a possible black hole until pulsations were found.[66] Cygnus X-1 has also never displayed X-ray bursts similar to those seen from neutron stars.[67] Cygnus X-1 unpredictably changes between two X-ray states, although the X-rays may vary continuously between those states as well. In the most common state, the X-rays are "hard", which means that more of the X-rays have high energy. In the less common state, the X-rays are "soft", with more of the X-rays having lower energy. The soft state also shows greater variability. The hard state is believed to originate in a corona surrounding the inner part of the more opaque accretion disk. The soft state occurs when the disk draws closer to the compact object (possibly as close as150 km), accompanied by cooling or ejection of the corona. When a new corona is generated, Cygnus X-1 transitions back to the hard state.[68]
The spectral transition of Cygnus X-1 can be explained using a two-componentadvective flow solution, as proposed by Chakrabarti and Titarchuk.[69] A hard state is generated by the inverse Comptonisation of seed photons from the Keplarian disk and likewise synchrotron photons produced by the hot electrons in the centrifugal-pressure–supported boundary layer (CENBOL).[70]
The X-ray flux from Cygnus X-1 varies periodically every 5.6 days, especially duringsuperior conjunction when the orbiting objects are most closely aligned with Earth and the compact source is the more distant. This indicates that the emissions are being partially blocked by circumstellar matter, which may be the stellar wind from the star HDE 226868. There is a roughly 300-day periodicity in the emission, which could be caused by theprecession of the accretion disk.[71]
As accreted matter falls toward the compact object, it losesgravitational potential energy. Part of this released energy is dissipated byjets of particles, alignedperpendicular to the accretion disk, that flow outward withrelativistic velocities (that is, the particles are moving at a significant fraction of thespeed of light). This pair of jets provide a means for an accretion disk to shed excess energy andangular momentum. They may be created bymagnetic fields within the gas that surrounds the compact object.[72]
The Cygnus X-1 jets are inefficient radiators and so release only a small proportion of their energy in theelectromagnetic spectrum. That is, they appear "dark". The estimated angle of the jets to the line of sight is 30°, and they may beprecessing.[68] One of the jets is colliding with a relatively dense part of theinterstellar medium (ISM), forming an energized ring that can be detected by its radio emission. This collision appears to be forming anebula that has been observed in theoptical wavelengths. To produce this nebula, the jet must have an estimated average power of 4–14×1036 erg/s, or(9±5)×1029 W.[73] This is more than 1,000 times the power emitted by the Sun.[74] There is no corresponding ring in the opposite direction because that jet is facing a lower-density region of theISM.[75]
In 2006, Cygnus X-1 became the first stellar-mass black hole found to display evidence ofgamma-ray emission in the very high-energy band, above100 GeV. The signal was observed at the same time as a flare of hard X-rays, suggesting a link between the events. The X-ray flare may have been produced at the base of the jet, while the gamma rays could have been generated where the jet interacts with the stellar wind of HDE 226868.[76]
HDE 226868 is a supergiant star with aspectral class of O9.7 Iab,[4] which is on the borderline between class-O and class-B stars. It has an estimated surface temperature of 31,000 K[77] and mass approximately 20–40 times themass of the Sun. Based on a stellar evolutionary model, at the estimated distance of 2,000 parsecs, this star may have a radius equal to about 15–17[46] times thesolar radius and has approximately 300,000–400,000 times theluminosity of the Sun.[52][78] For comparison, the compact object is estimated to be orbiting HDE 226868 at a distance of about 40 solar radii, or twice the radius of this star.[79]
The surface of HDE 226868 is beingtidally distorted by thegravity of the massive companion, forming a tear-drop shape that is further distorted by rotation. This causes the optical brightness of the star to vary by 0.06 magnitudes during each 5.6-day binary orbit, with the minimum magnitude occurring when the system is aligned with the line of sight.[80] The "ellipsoidal" pattern of light variation results from thelimb darkening andgravity darkening of the star's surface.[81]
When the spectrum of HDE 226868 is compared to the similar starAlnilam, the former shows an overabundance ofhelium and an underabundance ofcarbon in its atmosphere.[82] Theultraviolet andhydrogen-alpha spectral lines of HDE 226868 show profiles similar to the starP Cygni, which indicates that the star is surrounded by a gaseous envelope that is being accelerated away from the star at speeds of about 1,500 km/s.[83][84]
Like other stars of its spectral type, HDE 226868 is thought to be shedding mass in astellar wind at an estimated rate of2.5×10−6 solar masses per year; or one solar mass every 400,000 years.[85] The gravitational influence of the compact object appears to be reshaping this stellar wind, producing a focused wind geometry rather than a spherically symmetrical wind.[79] X-rays from the region surrounding the compact object heat and ionize this stellar wind. As the object moves through different regions of the stellar wind during its 5.6-day orbit, the UV lines,[86] the radio emission,[87] and the X-rays themselves all vary.[88]
TheRoche lobe of HDE 226868 defines the region of space around the star where orbiting material remains gravitationally bound. Material that passes beyond this lobe may fall toward the orbiting companion. This Roche lobe is believed to be close to the surface of HDE 226868 but not overflowing, so the material at the stellar surface is not being stripped away by its companion. However, a significant proportion of the stellar wind emitted by the star is being drawn onto the compact object's accretion disk after passing beyond this lobe.[19]
The gas and dust between Earth and HDE 226868 results in a reduction in the apparent magnitude of the star, as well as a reddening of the hue—red light can more effectively penetrate the dust in the interstellar medium. The estimated value of the interstellarextinction (AV) is 3.3 magnitudes.[89] Without the intervening matter, HDE 226868 would be a fifth-magnitude star,[90] and thus visible to the unaided eye.[91]
Cygnus X-1 was the subject of abet between physicistsStephen Hawking andKip Thorne, in which Hawking bet against the existence of black holes in the region. Hawking later described this as an "insurance policy" of sorts. In his bookA Brief History of Time he wrote:[93]
This was a form of insurance policy for me. I have done a lot of work on black holes, and it would all be wasted if it turned out that black holes do not exist. But in that case, I would have the consolation of winning my bet, which would win me four years of the magazinePrivate Eye. If black holes do exist, Kip will get one year ofPenthouse. When we made the bet in 1975, we were 80% certain that Cygnus X-1 was a black hole. By now [1988], I would say that we are about 95% certain, but the bet has yet to be settled.
According to the updated tenth-anniversary edition ofA Brief History of Time, Hawking has conceded the bet[94] due to subsequent observational data in favor of black holes. In his own bookBlack Holes and Time Warps, Thorne reports that Hawking conceded the bet by breaking into Thorne's office while he was inRussia, finding the framed bet, and signing it.[95] While Hawking referred to the bet as taking place in 1975, the written bet itself (in Thorne's handwriting, with his and Hawking's signatures) bears additional witness signatures under a legend stating "Witnessed this tenth day of December 1974".[96] This date was confirmed by Kip Thorne on the January 10, 2018 episode ofNova onPBS.[97]
Cygnus X-1 is the subject of atwo-part song series byCanadianprogressive rock bandRush. The first part, "Book I: The Voyage", is the last song on the 1977 albumA Farewell to Kings. The second part, "Book II: Hemispheres", is the first song on the following 1978 album,Hemispheres. The lyrics describe an explorer aboard the spaceshipRocinante, who travels to the black hole, believing that there may be something beyond it. As he moves closer, it becomes increasingly difficult to control the ship, and he is eventually drawn in by the pull of gravity.[98]
In the 1979 Disney live-action science fiction filmThe Black Hole, the scientific survey ship captained by Dr. Hans Reinhardt to study the black hole of the film's title is theCygnus, presumably (although never stated as such) named for the first-identified black hole, Cygnus X-1.[99]
Season 7 Episode 10 of Futurama opens with the taglineWhat Happens in Cygnus X-1 Stays In Cygnus X-1.
Kip Thorne:Stephen Hawking had a terribly deep investment in it actually being a black hole, and so he made the bet against himself as an insurance policy, so at least he would get something out of it, if Cygnus X-1 turned out not to be a black hole.
Eta Cygni is 25 arc minutes to the west-south-west of this star.
| Records | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by None Cyg X-1 is the first black hole discovered | Least distant black hole 1972—1986 | Succeeded by |
