Diagnosis is often difficult.[2] It may be suspected in a person following a house fire who has a decreasedlevel of consciousness, low blood pressure, or highlactic acid.[2] Blood levels of cyanide can be measured but take time.[2] Levels of 0.5–1 mg/L are mild, 1–2 mg/L are moderate, 2–3 mg/L are severe, and greater than 3 mg/L generally result in death.[2]
Ifhydrogen cyanide is inhaled, it can cause acoma withseizures,apnea, andcardiac arrest, with death following in a matter of seconds. At lower doses, loss of consciousness may be preceded by general weakness, dizziness,headaches,vertigo,confusion, and perceived difficulty in breathing. At the first stages of unconsciousness, breathing is often sufficient or even rapid, although the state of the person progresses towards a deep coma, sometimes accompanied bypulmonary edema, and finally cardiac arrest. A cherry red skin color that darkens may be present as the result of increased venoushemoglobinoxygen saturation. Despite the similar name, cyanide does not directly causecyanosis.[11] A fatal dose for humans is on average 1.52 mg/kg of body weight, with the lowest recorded lethal dose being 0.56 mg/kg.[12] Other sources claim a lethal dose is 1–3 mg per kg body weight for vertebrates.[13]
Exposure to lower levels of cyanide over a long period (e.g., after use of improperly processedcassava roots; cassava is a staple food in various parts of West Africa) results in increased blood cyanide levels, which can result in weakness and a variety of symptoms, including permanentparalysis, nervouslesions,[14][15][16]hypothyroidism,[15] andmiscarriages.[17][18] Other effects include mild liver and kidney damage.[19][20]
Cyanide poisoning can result from the ingestion of cyanide salts, imbibing pure liquidprussic acid, skin absorption of prussic acid,intravenous infusion ofnitroprusside forhypertensive crisis,[8] or the inhalation of hydrogen cyanide gas. The last typically occurs through one of three mechanisms:
Foods includingcassava (also known as tapioca, yuca or manioc) andbamboo shoots.
As a potential harm-reduction factor,vitamin B12, in the form ofhydroxocobalamin (also spelled hydroxycobalamin), might reduce the negative effects of chronic exposure; whereas, a deficiency might worsen negative health effects following exposure to cyanide.[24]
Specifically, cyanide binds to theheme a3-CuB binuclear center of COX[26] (and thus is anon-competitive inhibitor of it). This prevents electrons passing through COX from being transferred to O2, which not only blocks the mitochondrialelectron transport chain, it also interferes with the pumping of a proton out of themitochondrial matrix which would otherwise occur at this stage. Therefore, cyanide interferes not only with aerobic respiration but also with theATP synthesis pathway it facilitates, owing to theclose relationship between those two processes.[27]: 705
Oneantidote for cyanide poisoning,nitrite (i.e., viaamyl nitrite), works by convertingferrohemoglobin toferrihemoglobin, which can then compete with COX for free cyanide (as the cyanide will bind to the iron in its heme groups instead). Ferrihemoglobin cannot carryoxygen, but the amount of ferrihemoglobin that can be formed without impairing oxygen transport is much greater than the amount of COX in the body.[25]: 1475
Cyanide is a broad-spectrum poison because the reaction it inhibits is essential to aerobic metabolism; COX is found in multiple forms of life.[28] However, susceptibility to cyanide is far from uniform across affected species; for instance,plants have an alternative electron transfer pathway available that passes electrons directly fromubiquinone to O2, which confers cyanide resistance by bypassing COX.[27]: 704
Lactate is produced byanaerobic glycolysis whenoxygen concentration becomes too low for the normalaerobic respiration pathway. Cyanide poisoning inhibits aerobic respiration and therefore increases anaerobic glycolysis which causes a rise of lactate in the plasma. A lactate concentration above 10 mmol per liter is an indicator of cyanide poisoning, as defined by the presence of a blood cyanide concentration above 40 μmol per liter. Lactate levels greater than 6 mmol/L after reported or strongly suspected pure cyanide poisoning, such as cyanide-containing smoke exposure, suggests significant cyanide exposure.[29] However, lactate alone is not diagnostic of cyanide poisoning because lactosis is also triggered by other things, including mitochondrial dysfunction.[30]
Cyanide and thiocyanate assays have been run withmass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS), which are considered specific tests. Since cyanide has a shorthalf-life, the mainmetabolite,thiocyanate is typically measured to determine exposure.
Decontamination of people exposed only to the gas form of hydrogen cyanide requires removal of the outer clothing and the washing of their hair.[9] Those exposed to liquids or powders generally requirefull decontamination.[9]
TheInternational Programme on Chemical Safety issued a survey (IPCS/CEC Evaluation of Antidotes Series) that lists the following antidotal agents and their effects: oxygen, sodium thiosulfate,amyl nitrite, sodium nitrite, 4-dimethylaminophenol, hydroxocobalamin, and dicobalt edetate ('Kelocyanor'), as well as several others.[32] Another commonly-recommended antidote is 'solutions A and B' (a solution offerrous sulfate in aqueouscitric acid, and aqueoussodium carbonate, respectively).
The IrishHealth Service Executive (HSE) has recommended against the use of solutions A and B because of their limitedshelf life, potential to causeiron poisoning, and limited applicability (effective only in cases of cyanide ingestion, whereas the main modes of poisoning are inhalation and skin contact). The HSE has also questioned the usefulness of amyl nitrite due to storage/availability problems, risk of abuse, and lack of evidence of significant benefits. It also states that the availability ofkelocyanor at the workplace may mislead doctors into treating a patient for cyanide poisoning when this is an erroneous diagnosis. The HSE no longer recommends a particular cyanide antidote.[37]
The nitritesoxidize some of the hemoglobin's iron from theferrous state to theferric state, converting the hemoglobin intomethemoglobin.
Cyanide binds avidly to methemoglobin, formingcyanmethemoglobin, thus releasing cyanide from cytochrome oxidase.[38] Treatment withnitrites is not innocuous as methemoglobin cannot carry oxygen, and severemethemoglobinemia may need to be treated in turn withmethylene blue.[note 1]
The evidence forsodium thiosulfate's use is based on animal studies and case reports: the small quantities of cyanide present in dietary sources and in cigarette smoke are normally metabolized to relatively harmless thiocyanate by themitochondrial enzymerhodanese (thiosulfate cyanide sulfurtransferase), which uses thiosulfate as a substrate. However, this reaction occurs too slowly in the body for thiosulfate to be adequate by itself in acute cyanide poisoning. Thiosulfate must therefore be used in combination with nitrites.[38]
4-Dimethylaminophenol (4-DMAP) has been proposed[by whom?] in Germany as a more rapid antidote than nitrites with (reportedly) lower toxicity. 4-DMAP is used currently by the German military and by the civilian population. In humans, intravenous injection of 3 mg/kg of 4-DMAP produces 35 percent methemoglobin levels within 1 minute. Reportedly, 4-DMAP is part of the US Cyanokit, while it is not part of the German Cyanokit due to side effects (e. g.hemolysis).
Cobalt ions, being chemically similar to iron ions, can also bind cyanide. One current cobalt-based antidote available in Europe isdicobalt edetate or dicobalt-EDTA, sold as Kelocyanor. This agent chelates cyanide as the cobalticyanide. This drug provides an antidote effect more quickly than formation of methemoglobin, but a clear superiority to methemoglobin formation has not been demonstrated. Cobaltcomplexes are quite toxic, and there have been accidents reported in the UK where patients have been given dicobalt-EDTA by mistake based on a false diagnosis of cyanide poisoning. Because of its side effects, it should be reserved only for patients with the most severe degree of exposure to cyanide; otherwise, nitrite/thiosulfate is preferred.[41]
Evidence from animal experiments suggests that coadministration ofglucose protects against cobalt toxicity associated with the antidote agent dicobalt edetate. For this reason, glucose is often administered alongside this agent (e.g. in the formulation 'Kelocyanor'). It has also been anecdotally suggested that glucose is itself an effective counteragent to cyanide, reacting with it to form less toxic compounds that can be eliminated by the body. One theory on the apparent immunity ofGrigori Rasputin to cyanide was that his killers put the poison in sweet pastries andmadeira wine, both of which are rich in sugar; thus, Rasputin would have been administered the poison together with massive quantities of antidote. One study found a reduction in cyanide toxicity in mice when the cyanide was first mixed with glucose.[42] However, as yet glucose on its own is not an officially acknowledged antidote to cyanide poisoning.
The most widely studied cyanide-metabolizing pathway involves utilization of thiosulfate by the enzymerhodanese, as stated above. In humans, however, rhodanese is concentrated in the kidneys (0.96 units/mg protein) and liver (0.15 u/mg), with concentrations in lung, brain, muscle and stomach not exceeding 0.03 U/ml.[43] In all these tissues, it is found in the mitochondrial matrix, a site of low accessibility for ionized, inorganic species, such as thiosulfate. This compartmentalization of rhodanese in mammalian tissues leaves major targets of cyanide lethality, namely, the heart and central nervous system, unprotected. Rhodanese is also found in red blood cells, but its relative importance has not been clarified.[44][45])
A different cyanide-metabolizing pathway,3-mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase (3-MPST,EC2.8.1.2), which is more widely distributed in mammalian tissues than rhodanese, is being explored. 3-MPST converts cyanide to thiocyanate, using the cysteine catabolite, 3-mercaptopyruvate (3-MP). However, 3-MP is extremely unstable chemically. Therefore, aprodrug,sulfanegen sodium (2,5-dihydroxy-1,4-dithiane-2,5-dicarboxylic acid disodium salt), whichhydrolyzes into 2 molecules of 3-MP after being administered orally orparenterally, is being evaluated in animal models.[46][47]
Oxygen therapy is not a cure in its own right. However, thehuman liver is capable ofmetabolizing cyanide quickly in low doses (smokers breathe in hydrogen cyanide, but it is such a small amount and metabolized so fast that it does notaccumulate).
^Methylene blue has historically been used as an antidote to cyanide poisoning,[39] but is not a preferred therapy due to its theoretical risk of worsening of cyanide symptoms by displacement of cyanide from methemoglobin, allowing the toxin to bind to tissue electron transport chains.[40]
TheRepública Cromañón nightclub fire broke out inBuenos Aires, Argentina on 30 December 2004, killing 194 people and leaving at least 1,492 injured. Most of the victims died from inhaling poisonous gases, includingcarbon monoxide. After the fire, the technical institution INTI found that the level of toxicity due to the materials and volume of the building was 225 ppm of cyanide in the air. A lethal dose for rats is between 150 ppm and 220 ppm, meaning the air in the building was highly toxic.
On 27 January 2013,a fire at the Kiss nightclub in the city ofSanta Maria, in the south of Brazil, caused the poisoning of hundreds of young people by cyanide released by the combustion of soundproofing foam made withpolyurethane. By March 2013, 245 fatalities were confirmed.[48][49]
Research of hydrogen cyanide by chemistsCarl Wilhelm Scheele andClaude Bernard would become central to understanding the lethality of future gas chambers.[50] In early 1942,Zyklon B, which contains hydrogen cyanide, emerged as the preferred killing tool ofNazi Germany for use inextermination camps duringthe Holocaust.[51] The chemical was used to murder roughly one million people ingas chambers installed in extermination camps atAuschwitz-Birkenau,Majdanek, and elsewhere.[52] Most of the people who were murdered wereJews, and by far the majority of these murders took place at Auschwitz.[53][54][a] The constituents of Zyklon B were manufactured by several companies under licenses forDegesch, a corporation co-owned byIG Farben,Degussa andTh. Goldschmidt AG. It was sold to theGerman Army and theSchutzstaffel (SS) by the distributors Heli andTesta, with Heli supplying it to concentration camps atMauthausen,Dachau, andBuchenwald and Testa to Auschwitz and Majdanek.[56] Camps also occasionally bought Zyklon B directly from the manufacturers.[57] Of the 729tonnes of Zyklon B sold in Germany in 1942–44, 56 tonnes (about eight percent of domestic sales) were sold to concentration camps.[58] Auschwitz received 23.8 tonnes, of which six tonnes were used for fumigation. The remainder was used in the gas chambers or lost to spoilage (the product had a stated shelf life of only three months).[59] Testa conducted fumigations for theWehrmacht and supplied them with Zyklon B. They also offered courses to the SS in the safe handling and use of the material for fumigation purposes.[60] In April 1941, the German agriculture and interior ministries designated the SS as an authorized applier of the chemical, and thus they were able to use it without any further training or governmental oversight.[61]
For information on methods of suicide intervention, seeSuicide prevention.
For the pill commonly used for cyanide suicide, seeSuicide pill.
Cyanide salts are sometimes used as fast-acting suicide devices. Cyanide reacts at a higher level with high stomachacidity.
Viktor Meyer, 19th-century German chemist, died by suicide in 1897 after taking cyanide[65]
On 26 January 1904, company promoter and swindlerWhitaker Wright died by ingesting cyanide in a court anteroom immediately after being convicted of fraud.
Gustav Wied, Danish novelist, poet, and playwright, in 1914
Badal Gupta, a revolutionary from Bengal, who launched an attack on the Writers' Building in Kolkata, consumed cyanide in 1930 immediately after the attack.
In February 1937, the Uruguayan short story writerHoracio Quiroga died by drinking cyanide at a hospital inBuenos Aires.
It is speculated that, in 1954,Alan Turing used an apple that had been injected with a solution of cyanide to die after being convicted of having ahomosexual relationship, which wasillegal at the time in the United Kingdom, and forced to undergo hormonal castration to avoid prison. An inquest determined that Turing's death from cyanide poisoning was a suicide, although this has been disputed.
On 22 June 1977, Moscow,Aleksandr Dmitrievich Ogorodnik, a Soviet diplomat accused of spying on behalf of the Colombian Intelligence Agency and the USCentral Intelligence Agency, was arrested. During the interrogations, Ogorodnik offered to write a full confession and asked for his pen. Inside the pen cap was a hidden cyanide pill, which when bitten on, caused Ogorodnik to die before he hit the floor, according to the Soviets.[67]
On 18 November 1978,Jonestown. A total of 909 people died in Jonestown, some of them from apparent cyanide poisoning, in an event termed "revolutionary suicide" by Jones and some members on an audio tape of the event and in prior discussions. The poisonings in Jonestown followed the murder of five others byTemple members atPort Kaituma, including United States CongressmanLeo Ryan, an act that Jones ordered. Four other Temple members died by murder-suicide inGeorgetown at Jones' command.
On 6 June 1985, serial killerLeonard Lake died in custody after having ingested cyanide pills he had sewn into his clothes.
Jason Altom, a promising graduate student in the lab of Nobel Prize–winning chemistEJ Corey at Harvard, died after drinking potassium cyanide in 1998.
On 28 June 2012,Wall Street traderMichael Marin ingested a cyanide pill seconds after a guilty verdict was read in his arson trial inPhoenix, Arizona; he died minutes after.[68]
On 22 June 2015, John B. McLemore, a horologist and the central figure of the podcastS-Town, died after ingesting cyanide.[69]
Ramon Sampedro, Spanish tetraplegic and activist whose assisted suicide in 1998 provoked a national debate about euthanasia, and who was the subject of the Oscar-winning filmThe Sea Inside.
In 1993, an illegal spill resulted in the death of seven people inAvellaneda, Argentina.[71] In their memory, the National Environmental Conscious Day (Día Nacional de la Conciencia Ambiental) was established.[72]
In 2000, Allen Elias, CEO of Evergreen Resources was convicted of knowing endangerment for his role in the cyanide poisoning of employee Scott Dominguez.[74][75] This was one of the first successful criminal prosecutions of a corporate executive by theEnvironmental Protection Agency.
Timothy Marc O'Bryan (1966–1974) died on October 31, 1974, by ingesting potassium cyanide placed into a giantPixy Stix. His father,Ronald Clark O'Bryan, was[77] convicted of Tim's murder plus four counts of attempted murder. O'Bryan put potassium cyanide into five giant Pixy Stix that he gave to his son and daughter along with three other children. Only Timothy ate the poisoned candy and died.
Bruce Nickell and Sue Snow (5 June 1986) Murdered by Stella Nickell who poisoned bottles ofExcedrin.
Janet Overton (1942–1988) Her husband, Richard Overton, was convicted of poisoning her,[78] but Janet's symptoms did not match those of classic cyanide poisoning, the timeline was inconsistent with cyanide poisoning, and the amount found was just a trace. The diagnostic method used was prone to false positives. Richard Overton died in prison in 2009.
Urooj Khan (1966–2012), won the lottery and was found dead a few days later.[79] A blood diagnostic reported a lethal level of cyanide in his blood, but the body did not display any classic symptoms of cyanide poisoning, and no link to cyanide could be found in Urooj's social circle. The diagnostic method used was the Conway diffusion method, prone tofalse positives with artifacts ofheart attack andkidney failure. The chemistry of this and other false positives could be linked to theTBARS response following heart failure.
Autumn Marie Klein (20 April 2013), a prominent 41-year-old neuroscientist and physician, died from cyanide poisoning.[80] Klein's husband, Robert J. Ferrante, also a prominent neuroscientist who used cyanide in his research, was convicted of murder and sentenced to life in prison for her death. Robert Ferrante is appealing his conviction, claiming the cyanide was a false positive.[81]
Mirna Salihin died in hospital on 6 January 2016, after drinking aVietnamese iced coffee at a cafe in a shopping mall inJakarta. Police reports claim that cyanide poisoning was the most likely cause of her death.
Jolly Thomas ofKozhikode,Kerala,India, was arrested in 2019 for the murder of 6 family members. Murders took place over a 14-year period, and each victim ate a meal prepared by the killer. The murders were allegedly motivated by wanting control of the family finances and property.[82]
Mei Xiang Li ofBrooklyn, New York, collapsed and died in April 2017, with cyanide later reported to be in her blood.[83] However, Mei never exhibited symptoms of cyanide poisoning and no link to cyanide could be found in her life.
Sararath "Am" Rangsiwutthiporn, who became quickly known as "Am Cyanide" inThai media, was arrested by the Thai police for allegedly poisoning 11 of her friends and acquaintances, spanning 2020 to 2023, with 10 deaths and 1 surviving supposed victim.[84] According to an ongoing investigation, the number of victims is currently at 20-30 persons, mostly dead with several survived.
In 1988, between 3,200 and 5,000 people died in theHalabja massacre owing to unknown chemical nerve agents. Hydrogen cyanide gas was strongly suspected.[85][86]
In 1995, a device was discovered in a restroom in theKayabachōTokyo subway station, consisting of bags ofsodium cyanide andsulfuric acid with a remote controlled motor to rupture them, in what was believed to be an attempt by theAum Shinrikyocult to produce toxic amounts of hydrogen cyanide gas.[87]
In 2003,Al Qaeda reportedly planned to release cyanide gas into theNew York City Subway system. The attack was supposedly aborted because there would not be enough casualties.[88]
Cobinamide is the final compound in thebiosynthesis of cobalamin. It has greater affinity for the cyanide than cobalamin itself, which suggests that it could be a better option for emergency treatment.[89]
^Soviet officials initially stated that over four million people were murdered using Zyklon B at Auschwitz, but this figure was later proven to be greatly exaggerated.[55]
^abcdefghHamel J (February 2011). "A review of acute cyanide poisoning with a treatment update".Critical Care Nurse.31 (1):72–81, quiz 82.doi:10.4037/ccn2011799.PMID21285466.
^Aminlari M, Malekhusseini A, Akrami F, Ebrahimnejad H (2006). "Cyanide-metabolizing enzyme rhodanese in human tissues: Comparison with domestic animals".Comparative Clinical Pathology.16:47–51.doi:10.1007/s00580-006-0647-x.S2CID12978560.
^Alexander K, Procell LR, Kirby SD, Baskin SI (1989). "The inactivation of rhodanese by nitrite and inhibition by other anions in vitro".J. Biochem. Toxicol.4 (1):29–33.doi:10.1002/jbt.2570040106.PMID2769694.
^Steinbacher (2005).Auschwitz: A History. Penguin. pp. 132–133.Archived from the original on 15 March 2022. Retrieved27 February 2021.
^Christianson S (2010).The last gasp: the rise and fall of the American gas chamber. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press. p. 166.ISBN978-0-520-25562-3.
^Hayes 2004, pp. 294–297, chpt. "Degesch and Zyklon B.". "The SS learned in 1944 that the expiration dates on the Zyklon tins were not hard and fast. All in all, it seems reasonable to assume that the SS over- rather than underdosed ..." —Peter Hayes
^Eric Croddy with Clarisa Perez-Armendariz & John Hart,Chemical and Biological Warfare: A Comprehensive Survey for the Concerned Citizen (Spring Science+Business Media, 2002), p. 164.
^Suman SG, Gretarsdottir JM, Sigel A, Freisinger E, Sigel RK, Carver PL (2019). "Chapter 14. Chemical and Clinical Aspects of Metal-Containing Antidotes for Poisoning by Cyanide".Essential Metals in Medicine: Therapeutic Use and Toxicity of Metal Ions in the Clinic. Metal Ions in Life Sciences, vol. 19. Vol. 19. Berlin: de Gruyter. pp. 359–391.doi:10.1515/9783110527872-020.ISBN978-3-11-052691-2.PMID30855115.S2CID73728106.
Longerich P (2010).Holocaust: The Nazi Persecution and Murder of the Jews. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-280436-5.
Hayes P (2004).From Cooperation to Complicity: Degussa in the Third Reich. Cambridge; New York; Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-78227-2.
