These clandestine organisations continued their armed struggle againstPoland's communist government wagedguerrilla warfare well into the 1950s, including attacks againstprisons and statesecurity offices, detention facilities for political prisoners, and the concentration camps that had been set up across the country. Most Polish anti-communist groups ceased to exist in the late 1950s, as they were hunted down by agents of theMinistry of Public Security and the SovietNKVD.[8] The last known "cursed soldier",Józef Franczak, was killed in a 1963 ambush.[9][10]
Similar anti-communist insurgencies occurred in otherCentral European countries. The "cursed soldiers" have prompted controversy over the degree to which individual fighters or their units were involved inwar crimes against Jews or other ethnic minorities on Polish soil or against civilians generally. Common responses to such accusations have included that the accusations were partly or completely fabricated as communist propaganda to discredit the soldiers, or that any genuine victims were killed because of their involvement in, or cooperation with, communist authorities and that their ethnicity had little if any bearing on their demise.[11][12]
The Armia Krajowa officially disbanded on 19 January 1945 to prevent a slide into armed conflict with theRed Army and the increasing threat of civil war over Poland's sovereignty. However, many resistance cells decided to continue their struggle for Polish independence, and regarded Soviet forces as merely the new occupiers.Soviet partisans in Poland had already been ordered by Moscow on 22 June 1943 to engage Polish partisans in combat.[15]
According toMarek Jan Chodakiewicz's review ofBogdan Musial's bookSowjetische Partisanen, "Musial's study suggests that the Soviets seldom attacked German military and police targets. They preferred to assault the poorly armed and poorly trained Belarusan and Polish self-defense forces. Soviet guerrillas torched and leveled Polish landed estates much more frequently than they blew up military transports and assaulted other hard targets."[13] The main forces of theRed Army (theNorthern Group of Forces) and theNKVD began conducting operations against theHome Army (Armia Krajowa,A.K.) during and directly after the launch ofOperation Tempest, the Polish resistance's effort to seize control of cities and areas occupied by the Germans while the latter were preparing their defenses against the advancing Soviets.[14] Soviet leaderJoseph Stalin planned to ensure that an independent Poland would never reemerge in thepostwar period.[16]
Formation of the anti-communist underground
Uniform of a Polish anti-communist fighter, with breast badge displaying image of theBlack Madonna of Częstochowa
The first AK structure designed primarily to deal with the Soviet threat wasNIE (short forniepodległość "independence", and also meaning "no"), formed in mid-1943. NIE's goal was to observe and spy while the Polish government-in-exile decided how to deal with the Soviets, rather than to engage in combat. At that time, the exiled government still believed that negotiations could result in a solution leading to Poland's post-war independence.
On 7 May 1945, NIE was disbanded and transformed into theDelegatura Sił Zbrojnych na Kraj ("Armed Forces Delegation for Homeland"). This organization lasted only until August 8, 1945, when the decision was made[who?] to disband it and ceasepartisan resistance on Polish territory.[14]
ThePolish Committee of National Liberation declined jurisdiction over former AK soldiers. Consequently, for more than a year, Soviet agencies such as theNKVD dealt with the AK. By the end of the war, approximately 60,000 AK soldiers had been arrested, and 50,000 of them were deported to the Soviet Union's prisons and prison camps. Most had been captured by the Soviets during or in the aftermath ofOperation Tempest when many AK units tried to cooperate with the Red Army during their nationwide uprising against the Germans.
Other veterans were arrested when they approached the communist authorities after being promisedamnesty. In 1947, the government of thePeople's Republic of Poland proclaimed anamnesty for most wartime resistance fighters. The authorities expected around 12,000 people to give up their arms, but the total number of partisans to come out of the forests eventually reached 53,000. Many of them were arrested despite the promises. After repeated broken promises in the first few years of communist rule, former AK members refused to trust the government.[14]
After theDelegatura Sił Zbrojnych na Kraj ("Armed Forces Delegation for Homeland") was disbanded, another post-AK resistance organisation was formed, calledWolność i Niezawisłość ("Freedom and Sovereignty"). Wolność i Niezawisłość (WiN) was most concerned with helping former AK soldiers transition from life as partisans to that of civilians. Continued secrecy and conspiracy were necessary in light of the increasing persecution of AK veterans by the communist government. WiN was, however, much in need of funds to pay for false documents and to provide resources for the partisans, many of whom had lost their homes and entire life-savings in the war. Viewed as enemies of the state, starved of resources, and with a vocal faction advocating armed resistance against the Soviets and their Polish proxies, WiN was far from efficient. A significant victory for the NKVD and the newly created Polish secret police,Urząd Bezpieczeństwa (UB), came in the second half of 1945 when they convinced several leaders of WiN that they truly wanted to offer amnesty to AK members. Within a few months, intelligence gathered by the authorities led to thousands more arrests.[14] The primary period of WiN activity lasted until 1947. The organisation finally disbanded in 1952.[29]
The NKVD and UB used brute force and deception to eliminate the underground opposition. In the autumn of 1946, a group of 100–200 "cursed soldiers" of theNarodowe Siły Zbrojne (National Armed Forces, NSZ) were lured into a trap and massacred. In 1947, ColonelJulia ("Bloody Luna") Brystiger of thePolish Ministry of Public Security proclaimed at a security briefing that: "[t]he terrorist and political underground" had ceased to be a threatening force for the UB, although the "class enemy" at universities, offices and factories still had to be "found out and neutralised."[14]
The persecution of AK members was only one aspect of the reign of Stalinist terror in postwar Poland. In the period from 1944 to 1956, at least 300,000 Polish civilians were arrested.[30] Some sources claim that up to two million were arrested.[14] Approximately 6,000 death sentences were issued, and the majority of them were carried out.[30] It is probable that more than 20,000 people died in communist prisons. including those executed "in the majesty of the law", such asWitold Pilecki, a hero ofAuschwitz.[14]
A further six million Polish citizens (i.e., one out of every three adult Poles) were classified as suspected members of a 'reactionary or criminal element' and subjected to investigation by state agencies. During thePolish October of 1956, a political amnesty freed 35,000 former AK soldiers from prisons. But some partisans remained in service, unwilling or simply unable to rejoin the civilian community. Thecursed soldier Stanisław Marchewka "Ryba" ("The Fish") was killed in 1957, and the last AK partisan,Józef Franczak "Lalek" ("Doller"), was killed in 1963 — almost two decades after the Second World War ended. In 1967, long after the abolition of Stalinist terror,Adam Boryczka, the last member of the elite British-trainedCichociemny ("The Silent and Hidden") intelligence and support group, was finally released from prison. Until the end of thePeople's Republic of Poland, former AK soldiers were under constant investigation by the secret police. It was only in 1989, after thefall of communism, that the convictions of AK soldiers were finally declared invalid and annulled by Polish law.[14]
The biggest battle in the history of theNational Military Union (Narodowe Zjednoczenie Wojskowe, NZW) took place on 6–7 May 1945, in the village ofKuryłówka in southeastern Poland. In theBattle of Kuryłówka, the partisans fought against the Soviet2nd Border Regiment of the NKVD, gaining a victory for the underground forces commanded by MajorFranciszek Przysiężniak ("Marek"). The anti-communist fighters killed up to 70 Soviet agents. The NKVD troops retreated in haste, only to later return to the village and burn it to the ground in retaliation, destroying over 730 buildings.[31][32]
One of the biggest anti-partisan operations by the communist authorities took place from 10 to 25 June 1945, in and around theSuwałki andAugustów regions of Poland. The "Augustów roundup" (Polish:Obława augustowska) was a joint operation of the Red Army, the Soviet NKVD, andSMERSH battalions, with assistance from PolishUB andLWP units, against Armia Krajowa resistance fighters. The operation extended into the territory of occupiedLithuania. More than 2,000 suspected anti-communist Polish fighters were captured and detained in Sovietinternment camps. About 600 of the "Augustów Missing" are presumed to have died in Soviet custody, their bodies buried in unknown mass graves on the present territory of Russia. The PolishInstitute of National Remembrance has declared the 1945 Augustów roundup to be "the largest crime committed by the Soviets on Polish lands after World War II."[37]
2nd Lt. Teodor Śmiałowski ("Szumny", "Grom", and "Cichy")
Franciszek Andrulewicz,[39] his sister Janina and cousin Witold were also murdered;[40][41] and the family had already lost at least one relative at the hands of the Nazis.
The "cursed soldiers" served as an inspiration for numerous films, documentaries, books, stage plays, and songs and, in Poland, they have become the ultimate symbol of patriotism and heroic fight for fatherland against all odds. Notable examples include:
Film
The "cursed soldiers" graphic design on patriotic apparel
In 1990, Tadeusz Pawlicki directed adocumentary film entitledWitold, which is dedicated to the life ofWitold Pilecki, the author ofWitold's Report, the first comprehensive intelligence report on the atrocities committed at theAuschwitz concentration camp. The film features interviews with Pilecki's wife and his children Zofia and Andrzej. It was broadcast onTVP2 andTVP Historia television channels.[42]
In 1995, Alina Czerniakowska directed a documentary in collaboration with historian Leszek Żebrowski on the Polish anti-communist underground after the end ofWorld War II entitledZwycięstwo ("Victory").[43]
In 1996, Tadeusz Pawlicki, directed the filmMy, ogniowe dzieci, telling the story ofJózef Kuraś aliasOgień ("Fire").[44]
In 2000, Mariusz Pietrowski, directedŁupaszko, a documentary film on the life of majorZygmunt Szendzielarz (known asŁupaszko).[45]
In 2002,Grzegorz Królikiewicz directed a documentary film devoted to the life of Józef Kuraś entitledA potem nazwali go bandytą ("And Then They Called Him a Bandit...").
In 2004, a documentaryAgainst the Odds: Resistance in Nazi Concentration Camps was produced. It features the story of Witold Pilecki.[46]
In 2007, Jerzy Zalewski's filmElegia na śmierć Roja is dedicated to portraying the history ofMieczysław Dziemieszkiewicz.
In 2008,Discovery Historia channel broadcast a two-part documentary entitledIn the Name of the Polish People's Republic.
In 2009, a documentary seriesCursed Soldiers was produced by Discovery Historia.[47]
In 2013, Dariusz Walusiak's filmEscape from Hell. Tracing the Steps of Witold Pilecki is dedicated to the escape ofWitold Pilecki, Jan Redzeja and Edward Ciesielski from the notoriousAuschwitz concentration camp.
2016 saw the premiere of Jerzy Zalewski's filmHistoria Roja starringKrzysztof Zalewski as the main character.[52]
In 2017, Konrad Łęcki directedWyklęty ("The Cursed"), a film based on the life of anti-communist resistance memberJózef Franczak.[53]
Music
In 1996, Leszek Czajkowski's albumŚpiewnik oszołoma was published which includes a number of songs dedicated to the memory of the "cursed soldiers".[54]
In 2009, a Polish-Norwegianpunk rock bandDe Press released an albumMyśmy rebelianci ("We Are Rebels") honouring the legacy of the "cursed soldiers".[55]
In 2011, Polishhip-hop artist Tadek released asingle "Żołnierze wyklęci" to pay tribute to the members of the anti-communist underground operating after the end of theSecond World War in Poland.[56]
In 2011, a hip hop band Hemp Gru, released an albumLoyalty, which features a single "Forgotten Heroes".[57]
In 2012, Obłęd band released an album entitled100% Obłęd featuring a single dedicated to the Cursed Soldiers.
2013 saw the release of an albumPanny wyklęte, a music project by Dariusz Malejonek in collaboration with Polish singers includingMarika,Natalia Przybysz andHalina Mlynkova devoted to the contribution of female members of the anti-communist movement.[58]
In 2013, Forteca band released an albumKto dziś upomni się o pamięć.[59]
In 2014, Joined band released a single "Zabrali mi ciebie Tato" ("They Took You Away From Me, Dad") devoted to the murdered soldiers of the anti-communist underground.
In 2014, Swedishheavy metal bandSabaton paid tribute to Witold Pilecki in the single "Inmate 4859".[60]
On 15 May 2006, a stage productionŚmierć rotmistrza Pileckiego ("The Death of Captain Pilecki") directed byRyszard Bugajski and starring Marek Probosz had its premiere.
On 22 January 2007, a playInka. 1946 produced by Teatr Telewizji and diredcted by Natalia Koryncka-Gruz had its premiere in Poland.[62]
Books
In 2016, Polish historian Lech Kowalski published a monumental 1,100 page bookKorpus Bezpieczeństwa Wewnętrznego a Żołnierze Wyklęci (English: "Internal Security Corps and the Cursed Soldiers"), which focuses on the fight undertaken by the communist state authorities against Poland'santi-Communist underground in the years 1944–1956.[63]
In 2009, PresidentLech Kaczyński wrote that he aimed to "restor[e] the memory of the 'cursed soldiers'" during his presidency.[66]
In 2017, PresidentAndrzej Duda wrote that he "pay[s] tribute to the heroes of the anti-Communist uprising" and he believes that "the memory of the 'cursed soldiers' strengthens in us Poles the will to persevere through these imponderabilia." He also added that "independent Poland makes efforts to properly honor its best sons".[67]
Siegień, Paulina; Siegień, Wojciech (24 February 2020)."An unwanted march: Polish nationalists honour anti-communist partisans accused of war crimes". Notes from Poland. Retrieved22 March 2023."I very much appreciate the actions of Romuald 'Bury' Rajs," one participant in the march, Wiesław Bielawski, tells us. [...] "Bury was one of the greatest Polish heroes of the postwar period. He and his troops fought communists, managed to eliminate communist party cells, fought people collaborating with communists, executed traitors to the Polish nation." Asked if civilians killed in 1946 were traitors to the Polish nation, Bielawski and his friends argue that civilians died only because they did not obey the orders of Bury's soldiers. Why did Bury burn one of the villages? Because this property served traitors to the Polish nation.
^Koschalka, Ben (2 March 2020)."Poles should be willing to die for their country like the "cursed soldiers", says PM". Notes from Poland. Retrieved22 March 2023.But commemoration of the cursed soldiers also often stirs controversy, given that among the undisputed heroes, such as [Witold] Pilecki, are some figures who have been found responsible for the killing of civilians, including from ethnic minorities such as Jews and Belarusians.
Tilles, Daniel (3 March 2021)."Controversy over state commemoration of Polish anti-communist partisan accused of war crimes". Notes from Poland. Retrieved22 March 2023.But many in Poland – particularly on the political right – regard [Zygmunt] Szendzielarz as a hero for his role in fighting the wartime German occupiers and postwar communist authorities, who executed him in 1951. They often argue that the reputation of the cursed soldiers was deliberately and falsely tarnished by the communists. "The communists considered Szendzielarz one of their greatest opponents," said Piotr Niwiński, a historian at theUniversity of Gdańsk, quoted by the Polish Press Agency (PAP). "[So] they tried to annihilate him not only physically but also through propaganda, blaming him for many crimes."
Tilles, Daniel (22 March 2023)."Jewish leaders condemn Polish coin honouring WWII partisan accused of murdering Jews". Notes from Poland. Retrieved22 March 2023.On its website, the Institute of National Remembrance (IPN) [...] defends [Józef] Kuraś's legacy. It argues he has been unfairly portrayed as a murderous antisemite due to the lasting effect of communist propaganda, which sought to sully the name of the cursed soldiers. The IPN admits that "Jews died at the hands of the [Polish] underground". However, this was not because they were Jews, but because "of their service in the [communist] organs of repression, Polish Workers' Party or cooperation with the Department of Security".
^Tadeusz Piotrowski,Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918-1947, McFarland & Company, 1998,ISBN0-7864-0371-3, p.131 (Google Print)
^Ireneusz Sewastianowicz; Stanisław Kulikowski (1990)."Not Only Katyn; Part 10: "The Augustow Missing"".The Doomed Soldiers. Polish Underground Soldiers 1944-1963 - The Untold Story. Białostockie Wydawn. Prasowe.
Jerzy Ślaski,Żołnierze wyklęci, Warszawa, Oficyna Wydawnicza Rytm, 1996
Grzegorz Wąsowski and Leszek Żebrowski, eds.,Żołnierze wyklęci: Antykomunistyczne podziemie zbrojne po 1944 roku, Warszawa, Oficyna Wydawnicza Volumen and Liga Republikańska, 1999
Kazimierz Krajewskiet al.,Żołnierze wyklęci: Antykomunistyczne podziemie zbrojne po 1944 r., Oficyna Wydawnicza Volumen and Liga Republikańska, 2002
Tomasz Łabuszewski,Białostocki Okręg AK- AKO : VII 1944-VIII 1945 (Warszawa: Oficzna Wydawnicza Volumen andDom Wydawniczy Bellona, 1997)
Zrzeszenie “Wolność i Niezawisłość” w dokumentach, 6 vols. (Wrocław: Zarząd Główny WiN, 1997–2001)
Zygmunt Woźniczka,Zrzeszenie “Wolność i Niezawisłość” 1945-1952 (Warszawa: Instytut Prasy i Wydawnictw “Novum” – “Semex”, 1992)
Marek Latyński,Nie paść na kolana: Szkice o opozycji lat czterdziestych (London: Polonia Book Fund Ltd., 1985)
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