Cumin is the dried seed of the herbCuminum cyminum, a member of theparsley family. The cumin plant grows to 30–50 cm (12–20 in) tall and is harvested by hand. It is anannualherbaceous plant, with a slender,glabrous, branchedstem that is 20–30 cm (8–12 in) tall and has a diameter of 3–5 cm (1+1⁄4–2 in).[10] Each branch has two to three sub-branches. All the branches attain the same height, so the plant has a uniform canopy.[10] The stem is colored grey or dark green. Theleaves are 5–10 cm (2–4 in) long,pinnate orbipinnate, with thread-like leaflets. Theflowers are small, white or pink, and borne inumbels. Each umbel has five to seven umbellets.[10] Thefruit is a lateral fusiform orovoidachene 4–5 mm (1⁄6–1⁄5 in) long, containing two mericarps with a singleseed.[10] Cumin seeds have eight ridges with oil canals.[10] They resemblecaraway seeds, being oblong in shape, longitudinally ridged, and yellow-brown in color, like other members of the family Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) such as caraway, parsley, anddill.[11]
Cuminum cyminum LinnCumin essential oil in clear glass vial
Likely originating inCentral Asia,Southwestern Asia, or theEastern Mediterranean,[13][14] cumin has been in use as a spice for thousands of years.[12] Seeds of wild cumin were excavated in the now-submerged settlement ofAtlit-Yam, dated to the early 6th millennium BC.[4] Seeds excavated in Syria were dated to the second millennium BC.[15] They have also been reported from severalNew Kingdom levels ofancient Egyptian archaeological sites.[13][14] In the ancient Egyptian civilization, cumin was used as a spice and as a preservative in mummification.[10][14]
Cumin was a significant spice for theMinoans in ancientCrete.Ideograms for cumin appear inLinear A archive tablets documentingMinoan palace stores during theLate Minoan period.[16] The ancient Greeks kept cumin at the dining table in its own container (much as pepper is frequently kept today), and this practice continues inMorocco. Cumin was also used heavily in ancient Roman cuisine.[17] In India, it has been used for millennia as a traditional ingredient in innumerable recipes, and forms the basis of many other spice blends.[5]
Cumin was introduced to theAmericas by Spanish and Portuguese colonists. Black and green cumin are used inPersian cuisine. Today, the plant is mostly grown in theIndian subcontinent,Northern Africa,Mexico,Chile, andChina.[12] Since cumin is often used as part ofbird food and exported to many countries, the plant can occur as an introduced species in many territories.[18]
Ground cumin on display at the market in Ortigia, Syracuse (Italy)Commercially packaged whole and ground cumin seedsJeerabhaat (cumin rice), anIndian dish
India is the world's largest producer of cumin, accounting for about 70%. The other major cumin-producing countries areSyria (13%),Turkey (5%),UAE (3%), andIran.[19] India produced 856,000 tons of cumin seed in the 2020–2021 fiscal year.[20]
Cumin is a drought-tolerant tropical or subtropical crop. It is vulnerable to frost and has a growth season of 120 frost-free days.[21] The optimum growth temperature ranges are between 25 and 30 °C (77 and 86 °F).[10] The Mediterranean climate is most suitable for its growth. Cultivation of cumin requires a long, hot summer of three to four months. At low temperatures, the leaf color changes from green to purple. High temperatures might reduce growth period and induce early ripening. In India, cumin is sown from October until the beginning of December, and harvesting starts in February.[10] In Syria and Iran, cumin is sown from mid-November until mid-December (extensions up to mid-January are possible) and harvested in June/July.[10]
Cumin is grown from seeds. The seeds need 2 to 5 °C (36 to 41 °F) for emergence, an optimum of 20–30 °C (68–86 °F) is suggested. Cumin is vulnerable to frost damage, especially at flowering and early seed formation stages.[10] Methods to reduce frost damage are spraying withsulfuric acid (0.1%), irrigating the crop prior to frost incidence, setting upwindbreaks, or creating an early-morning smoke cover.[10] The seedlings of cumin are rather small and their vigor is low. Soaking the seeds for 8 hours before sowing enhances germination.[10] For an optimal plant population, a sowing density of 12–15 kilograms per hectare (11–13 lb/acre) is recommended.[10] Fertile, sandy, loamy soils with good aeration, proper drainage, and high oxygen availability are preferred. The pH optimum of the soil ranges from 6.8 to 8.3.[10] Cumin seedlings are sensitive to salinity[23] and emergence from heavy soils is rather difficult. Therefore, a proper seedbed preparation (smooth bed) is crucial for the optimal establishment of cumin.[citation needed]
Two sowing methods are used for cumin, broadcasting and line sowing.[10] For broadcast sowing, the field is divided into beds and the seeds are uniformly broadcast in this bed. Afterwards, they are covered with soil using a rake. For line sowing, shallow furrows are prepared with hooks at a distance of 20 to 25 cm (8 to 10 in). The seeds are then placed in these furrows and covered with soil. Line sowing offers advantages for intercultural operations such as weeding, hoeing, or spraying.[10] The recommended sowing depth is 1–2 cm and the recommended sowing density is around 120 plants per m2. The water requirements of cumin are lower than those of many other species.[10] Despite this, cumin is often irrigated after sowing to be sure that enough moisture is available for seedling development. The amount and frequency of irrigation depends on the climate conditions.[10]
The relative humidity in the center of origin of cumin is rather low. High relative humidity (i.e. wet years) favors fungal diseases. Cumin is especially sensitive toAlternaria blight andFusarium wilt. Early-sown crops exhibit stronger disease effects than late-sown crops. The most important disease isFusarium wilt, resulting in yield losses up to 80%.[10]Fusarium is seed- or soil-borne and it requires distinct soil temperatures for the development of epidemics.[10] Inadequate fertilization might favorFusarium epidemics.[10] Cumin blight (Alternaria) appears in the form of dark brown spots on leaves and stems.[10] When the weather is cloudy after flowering, the incidence of the disease is increased.[10] Another, but less important, disease ispowdery mildew. Incidence of powdery mildew in early development can cause drastic yield losses because no seeds are formed.[10] Later in development, powdery mildew causes discolored, small seeds.[10]
Pathogens can lead to high reductions in crop yield. Cumin can be attacked by aphids (Myzus persicae) at the flowering stage. They suck the sap of the plant from tender parts and flowers. The plant becomes yellow, the seed formation is reduced (yield reduction), and the quality of the harvested product decreases. Heavily infested plant parts should be removed. Other important pests are themites (Petrobia latens) which frequently attack the crop. Since the mites mostly feed on young leaves, the infestation is more severe on young inflorescences.[24]
The open canopy of cumin is another problem. Only a low proportion of the incoming light is absorbed. Theleaf area index of cumin is low (about 1.5). This might be a problem because weeds can compete with cumin for essential resources such as water and light and thereby lower yield. The slow growth and the short stature of cumin favors weed competition additionally.[10] Two hoeing and weeding sessions (30 and 60 days after sowing) are needed for the control of weeds. During the first weeding session (30 days after sowing), thinning should be done, as well, to remove excess plants. The use of preplant or pre-emergenceherbicides is very effective in India,[10] but this kind of herbicide application requires soil moisture for a successful weed control.[25]
Cumin is adiploid species with 14chromosomes (i.e. 2n = 14). The chromosomes of the different varieties have morphological similarities with no distinct variation in length and volume. Most of the varieties available today are selections.[10] The variabilities of yield and yield components are high. Varieties are developed by sib mating in enclosed chambers[10] or by biotechnology. Cumin is a cross-pollinator, i.e. the breeds are already hybrids. Therefore, methods used for breeding arein vitro regenerations, DNA technologies, and gene transfers. Thein vitro cultivation of cumin allows the production of genetically identical plants. The main sources for the explants usedin vitro regenerations are embryos,hypocotyl, shoot internodes, leaves, andcotyledons. One goal of cumin breeding is to improve its resistance to biotic (fungal diseases) and abiotic (cold, drought, salinity) stresses. The potential genetic variability for conventional breeding of cumin is limited and research about cumin genetics is scarce.[26]
Cumin seed is used as aspice for its distinctive flavor and aroma.[12][14] Cumin can be found in some cheeses, such asLeyden cheese, and in some traditional breads from France. Cumin can be an ingredient inchili powder (oftenTex-Mex or Mexican-style) and is found inachiote blends,adobos,sofrito,garam masala,curry powder, andbahaarat, and is used to flavor numerous commercial food products.[5] In Indian and other South Asian cuisine, it is often combined withcoriander seeds in a powdered mixture calleddhana jeera.
Cumin can be usedground or as whole seeds.[12][14] It imparts an earthy, warming and aromatic character to food, making it a staple in certain stews and soups, as well as spiced gravies such as curry and chili.[14] It is also used as an ingredient in some pickles and pastries.[27]
In India, the seeds are powdered and used in different forms such askashaya (decoction),arishta (fermented decoction), andvati (tablet/pills), and processed withghee (a semifluid clarified butter). Intraditional medicine practices of several countries, dried cumin seeds are assumed to have medicinal purposes,[5] although there is no scientific evidence for any use as a drug or medicine.[5]
Cumin's flavor and warm aroma are due to its essential oil content, primarily thearoma compound cuminaldehyde.[31] Other aroma compounds of toasted cumin are thesubstitutedpyrazines, 2-ethoxy-3-isopropylpyrazine, 2-methoxy-3-sec-butylpyrazine, and 2-methoxy-3-methylpyrazine. Other components includeγ-terpinene,safranal,p-cymene, andβ-pinene.[33][34][35]
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^ab"Cumin".Oxford Learner's Dictionaries. Retrieved20 February 2024.
^abKislev, Mordechai E; Hartmann, Anat; Galili, Ehud (September 2004). "Archaeobotanical and archaeoentomological evidence from a well at Atlit-Yam indicates colder, more humid climate on the Israeli coast during the PPNC period".Journal of Archaeological Science.31 (9):1301–1310.Bibcode:2004JArSc..31.1301K.doi:10.1016/j.jas.2004.02.010.
^abcde"Cumin". Drugs.com. 21 April 2025. Retrieved22 October 2025.
^Heinrich Zimmern (1915) Akkadische Fremdwörter als Beweis für babylonischen Kultureinfluss (in German), Leipzig: A. Edelmann,page 57
^abc"Cumin."A Way with Words (Radio broadcast/podcast). 25 October 2014. Retrieved 15 February 2024.
^Charles Harrington Elster. "Cumin."The Big Book of Beastly Mispronunciations: The Complete Opinionated Guide for the Careful Speaker. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1999.pp. 92–93.ISBN9780395893388
^Rahman, Azad; Akbar, Delwar; Surya, Bhattarai; et al."Market Analysis of Cumin Seed".crcna.com.au. CRC for Developing Northern Australia. Retrieved31 August 2021.
^"Cuminum cyminum (Cumin, Cummin, Jeera)".plants.ces.ncsu.edu; North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox. North Carolina State University. Retrieved24 December 2022.
^Ebrahimie E, Habashi AA, Ghareyazie B, Ghannadha M, Mohammadie M (2003). "A rapid and efficient method for regeneration of plantlets from embryo explants of cumin (Cuminum cyminum)".Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture.75 (1):19–25.Bibcode:2003PCTOC..75...19E.doi:10.1023/A:1024676507010.S2CID13278163.
^"Cumin Seed". FoodData Central, United States Department of Agriculture. 2017.Archived from the original on 25 October 2019. Retrieved24 February 2018.
^abBettaieb I, Bourgou S, Sriti J, Msaada K, Limam F, Marzouk B (August 2011). "Essential oils and fatty acids composition of Tunisian and Indian cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.) seeds: a comparative study".Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture.91 (11):2100–7.Bibcode:2011JSFA...91.2100B.doi:10.1002/jsfa.4513.PMID21681765.
^Li R, Zi-Tao J (2004). "Chemical composition of the essential oil ofCuminum cyminum L. from China".Flavour and Fragrance Journal.19 (4):311–313.doi:10.1002/ffj.1302.
^Wang L, Wang Z, Zhang H, Li X, Zhang H (August 2009). "Ultrasonic nebulization extraction coupled with headspace single drop microextraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for analysis of the essential oil in Cuminum cyminum L".Analytica Chimica Acta.647 (1):72–7.Bibcode:2009AcAC..647...72W.doi:10.1016/j.aca.2009.05.030.PMID19576388.
^Iacobellis NS, Lo Cantore P, Capasso F, Senatore F (January 2005). "Antibacterial activity of Cuminum cyminum L. and Carum carvi L. essential oils".Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.53 (1):57–61.Bibcode:2005JAFC...53...57I.doi:10.1021/jf0487351.PMID15631509.
