Theculture of the Southern United States,Southern culture, orSouthern heritage, is asubculture of theUnited States. From its many cultural influences,the South developed its own unique customs,dialects, arts,literature,cuisine, dance, andmusic.^[3] The combination of its unique history and the fact that many Southerners maintain—and even nurture—an identity separate from the rest of the country has led to it being one of the most studied and written-about regions of the United States.

From the 17th century until the mid-19th century, the central role of agriculture and slavery during thecolonial period andantebellum era economies made society stratified according to land ownership. This landed gentry made culture in the early Southern United States differ from areas north of theMason–Dixon line and west of theAppalachians. Theupland areas of the South were characterized byyeoman farmers who worked on their smalllanded property with few or no slaves, while the lower-lying elevations andDeep South was a society of moreplantations worked by African slave labor. Events such as theFirst Great Awakening (1730s–1750s) would strengthenProtestantism in the South and United States as a whole. Communities would often develop strong attachment to their churches as the primary community institution.

Starting in the early 1600s and lasting to the mid-1800s,slavery played an outsized role in shaping the culture, politics, and economy of the South. This included its agricultural practices, the outbreak of theAmerican Civil War, and the imposition ofracial segregation. Southernyeoman farmers,subsistence farmers who owned few or no slaves, comprised a large portion of the population during thecolonial period andantebellum era, which settled largely in the back country anduplands. Their way of life and culture would differ sharply from that of theplanter class. The climate of the region is conducive to growingtobacco,cotton, and other crops, and the red clay in many areas was used for the distinctive red-brick architecture of many commercial buildings.

The presence and practices ofNative Americans, along with the region's landscape, also played a role in shaping Southern culture. Events such as theFirst Great Awakening (1730s–1750s) would help establish the growth ofProtestantism in the South and United States as a whole.^[4] Throughout much of the Southern United States history, the region was heavilyrural. Not until during and afterWorld War II did the region start to see larger scaleurbanization of its cities and metropolitan areas. This would lead to social and economic transformation of the South in the years since the 1940s.^[5]

In the time of their arrival, the predominant cultural influence on the Southern states was that of theEnglish colonists who established the original English colonies in the region.^[6] In the 17th century, most were ofSouth West England andSouth East England origins, from regions such asKent,Sussex and theWest Country who settled mostly on the coastal regions of the South but pushed as far inland as theAppalachian mountains by the 18th century. In the 18th century, large groups ofScots lowlanders,Northern English andUlster-Scots (later called theScots-Irish) (who's ancestors were Protestants from the Scottish lowlands and Northern England) settled inAppalachia and thePiedmont. Following them were larger numbers of English indentured servants from across theEnglish Midlands and Southern England; they would be the largest group to settle in the Southern Colonies during the colonial period.^{[7][8][9][10]} They were often called "crackers", a derogatory epithet applied to rural, non-elite whites of south Georgia and north Florida.^[11] Before theAmerican Revolution, the term was applied by the English, as a derogatory epithet for the non-elite settlers of the southern backcountry. This usage can be found in a passage from a letter to theEarl of Dartmouth, "I should explain ... what is meant byCrackers; a name they have got from being great boasters; they are a lawless set of rascals on the frontiers of Virginia, the Carolinas and Georgia, who often change their places of abode."^[11]

Most European Southerners today are of partial or majority English andScots-Irish ancestry.^[12] In previous censuses, over a third of Southern responders identified as being of English orpartly English ancestry^[8][9] with 19,618,370 self-identifying as "English" on the 1980 census, followed by 12,709,872 identifying asIrish, 11,054,127 asAfro-American, and 10,742,903 asGerman.^[8][9][13] It should also be noted that those who did identify themselves of German ancestry were almost exclusively found in the northern border areas of the region which are adjacent to the AmericanMid-West. Those from theTidewater area of Virginia and theTidewater region of North Carolina identified themselves almost exclusively as of English origins, while those from the Piedmont areas were a mixture of English,Scotch-Irish,Scottish andIrish origins. South Georgia has a large Irish presence, the ancestors of whom were largely at one timeRoman Catholic; however, many were converted to variousProtestant sects due to the lack of a missionary presence of theCatholic Church in the 18th and 19th centuries. The predominance ofIrish surnames in South Georgia has been noted by American historians for some time. Meanwhile, a community of Scottish highlanders settled around what is now Fayetteville in North Carolina. Gaelic was spoken in this region into the nineteenth century.^{[citation needed]}

People of many nationalities established communities in the American South. Some examples are theGerman American population of theEdwards Plateau ofTexas, whose ancestors arrived in the region in the 1840s. German cultural influence continues to be felt in cities likeNew Braunfels, Texas nearAustin andSan Antonio.^[14] Much of the population of East Texas, Louisiana, coastal Mississippi and Alabama, and Florida traces its primary ancestry to French and/or Spanish colonists of the 18th century. Also important is the French community ofNew Orleans dating back to the 1880s.

Another primary population group in the South is made up of theAfrican American descendants of enslaved Africans brought into the South.^[15][16] African Americans comprise the United States' largest ethnic group and simultaneously second largest racial minority, accounting for 14 percent of the total population according to the 2010 census. They accounted for nearly 45% of the Southern population during the Antebellum period through the early 20th century.^[17]

DespiteJim Crow era outflow to the North and Midwest (seeGreat Migration), the majority of the Black population has remained concentrated in the southern states from Virginia to Texas. Since the end of formal segregation, Black Americans have been returning to the South in large numbers (seeNew Great Migration).^[18]

A sizable fraction of the Southern population is also made ofHispanic Americans, especially immigrants from Central American countries which border on the US's southernmost states. The Hispanic population of the South has expanded considerably in recent years, both due to naturalpopulation growth and immigration. It is concentrated mainly in the Southern states of Texas and Florida, due to their proximity toLatin America.^[19]

Over the past half-century, numerousLatinos have migrated to the American South from Latin America, most notably in the cases of Texas and Florida. Urban areas such as Atlanta, New Orleans, Charlotte and Nashville have seen a major increase in Latino immigrants since the 1990s. Factory andagribusiness jobs have also attracted Mexican and Latin American workers to more rural regions of the South.^[20][21][22]

Part of the South is known as the "Bible Belt", because of the prevalence there ofevangelical Protestantism. South Florida has a largeJewish element that migrated from New York. Immigrants from Southeast Asia and South Asia have brought Buddhism and Hinduism to the region as well.^[23] In the colonial period and early 19th century theFirst Great Awakening and theSecond Great Awakening transformed Southern religion. The evangelical religion was spread by religious revivals led by local lay Baptist ministers or itinerant Methodist ministers. They fashioned the nation's "Bible Belt."^[24]

After the Revolution, the AnglicanChurch of England was disestablished (meaning it no longer received local tax money) and reorganized as theProtestant Episcopal Church of the USA. The Revolution turned more people towardMethodist and Baptist preachers in the South. TheCane Ridge Revival and subsequent "camp meetings" on the Kentucky and Tennessee frontiers were the impetus behind theRestoration Movement. Traveling preachers used music and song to convert new members.Shape-note singing became a fundamental part of camp meetings in frontier regions. In the early decades of the 18th century, the Baptists in the South reduced their challenge to class and race. Rather than pressing for freedom for slaves, they encouraged planters to improve treatment of them, and ultimately used the Bible to justify slavery.^[25]

In 1845, theSouthern Baptist Convention separated from other regions. Baptist and Methodist churches proliferated across the Tidewater region, usually attracting common planters, artisans and workers. The wealthiest planters continued to be affiliated with theEpiscopal Church.^{[citation needed]} By the beginning of the Civil War, theBaptist andMethodist churches had attracted the most members in the South, and their churches were most numerous in the region.^[25]

HistoricallyCatholic colonists were primarily those from Spain and France who settled in coastal areas of Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas.^{[citation needed]} Today,^[when?] there are significantCatholic populations along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico (especially the port cities ofNew Orleans,Biloxi,Pensacola andMobile), which preserve the continuing Catholic traditions ofCarnival at the beginning of Lent inMardi Gras parades and related customs. Elsewhere in the region, Catholics are typically a minority and of mainly Irish, German and French or modern Hispanic ancestry.^{[citation needed]} As of 2013, Catholics comprised 42% of the population in the New Orleans Metropolitan area based on numbers presented by the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New Orleans.

Atlanta, in comparison to some other Southern cities, had a relatively small Catholic population prior to the 1990s. Catholics comprised 1.7% of the population in 1960, and 3.1% of the population in 1980. The population has been growing rapidly since then. The number of Catholics grew from 292,300 members in 1998 to 900,000 members in 2010, an increase of 207 percent. The population was expected to top 1 million by 2011.^{[26][27][needs update]} The increase is fueled by Catholics moving to Atlanta from other parts of the U.S. and the world, and from newcomers to the church.^[27] About 16 percent of all metropolitan Atlanta residents are Catholic, comparable to manyMidwestern metropolitan areas.^[28]

Raleigh, North Carolina also has a rapidly growing number of Catholics, with Catholicism having the largest number of affiliates out of any other religious group (11.3%) and the second largest number inWake County (22%).^[29][30]

Maryland, which was settled by the British, is historicallyCatholic^[31] as well and many historians believe it was named after theQueen Henrietta Maria byCecilius Calvert, 2nd Baron of Baltimore.^[32] Maryland was the only Roman Catholic British colony in the Americas, and was considered a refuge for England's Roman Catholic minority which was being persecuted by theChurch of England.^[33] WhenWilliam of Orange rose to power in England, Catholicism was outlawed in Maryland, causing a decrease in the number of practicing Catholics. In the 1840s, the Catholic population rebounded with the mass immigration of Irish due to theGreat Famine of Ireland.^[34] Maryland also became home to manyPolish andItalian immigrants.^[35]

In general, the inland regions of the Deep South and Upper South, such as Arkansas, Tennessee, Mississippi, and Alabama were less attractive to immigrants and have stronger concentrations of Baptists, Methodists,Churches of Christ and other Protestant or non-Catholic fellowships.^[36] Eastern and northern Texas are heavily Protestant, while the southern and western parts of the state are predominantlyCatholic.^[37]

Due to the large population of Black Americans in the South, traditional African spiritual customs, particularly those brought by theBakongo,Bambara,Hausa,Fon, andEwe peoples, began to influence Christian practices as enslaved Africans converted to Christianity.^[38][39] This led to the normalization of African customs inthe Black Church, AmericanPentecostalism, and the practice of Christianity across the South across racial lines. Studies have found that 20th Century American Christian practices, such asspeaking in tongues andcatching the holy ghost were directly influenced by traditional African forms of worship.^[40]Shoutin' , a Christian method of worship is derived from the Ring Shout, a Bakongo religious practice fromAngola and theDemocratic Republic of the Congo that involved forming a circle, singing, and dancing to connect with the godNzambi, the goddessNzambici and the ancestors.^[41][42] TheseAfricanisms became the basis of the Black American spiritual tradition known asHoodoo. These beliefs were further combined with various other traditional African religions and Catholicism to form the diasporic religionLouisiana Voodoo.^[43] The Hausa people's concept ofjuju and the Bakongo people's concept ofmojo became central aspects of both Hoodoo and Louisiana Voodoo.^[44][45]

The city ofCharleston, South Carolina, has had a significant Jewish population since the colonial period. The first were Sephardic Jews who had been living in London or on the island of Barbados. They were connected to Jewish communities in New England as well. The community figured prominently in the history ofSouth Carolina.Richmond also had a large Sephardic Jewish community before the Revolution and still has a notable Jewish community today. They built the first synagogue in Virginia about 1791.^[46]New Orleans also historically (and in the present day) has a significant Jewish community.

TheSouth Florida area is home to the nation's second largest concentration of Jewish Americans outside New York, most of them early 20th century migrants and descendants from the Northeast. They were descendants ofAshkenazi Jews from Germany, Russia, Poland and other parts of Eastern Europe. Twentieth-century migration and business development have brought significantJewish andMuslim communities to most major business and university cities, such asMiami,Atlanta,Dallas,Houston, and more recently, Charlotte.

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Southern American English is a group ofdialects of the English language spoken throughout the Southern states of the United States, fromWest Virginia andKentucky to theGulf Coast, and from the mid-Atlantic coast to throughout most ofTexas andOklahoma.

Southern dialects make up the largest accent group in the United States.^[49] Southern American English can be divided into different sub-dialects, with speech differing between regions.African American Vernacular English (AAVE) shares similarities with Southern dialect due toAfrican Americans' strong historical ties to the region.

It has been said that Southerners are most easily distinguished from other Americans by their speech, both in terms of accent and idiom. However, there is no single "Southern Accent." Rather, Southern American English is a collection ofdialects of the English spoken throughout the South. Southern American English can be divided into different sub-dialects, with speech differing between, for example, that ofAppalachian region and the coastal "low country" aroundCharleston, South Carolina. Folklorists in the 1920s and later argued that because of the region's isolation, Appalachian language patterns more closely mirroredElizabethan English than other accents in the United States.^[50]

While traces of African linguistic features remain in AAVE, there are a few distinctively African dialect groups in the South, theGullah the most famous among them.Gullah is still spoken by some African Americans in theLow Country of South Carolina, Georgia, southeastern North Carolina, and Northeast Florida, particularly the older generation. Also calledGeechee in Georgia, the language and a strongly African culture developed because of the people's relative isolation in large communities, and continued importation of slaves from the same parts of Africa. As the enslaved people on large plantations were relatively undisturbed by whites, Gullah developed as a creole language, based on African forms. Similarly the people kept many African forms in religious rituals,foodways and similar transportable culture, all influenced by the new environment in the colonies. Other, less known African American dialect groups are the rural blacks of the Mississippi Basin, andAfricatown near Mobile, Alabama, where the last known ship to arrive in the Americas with slaves was abandoned in 1860.

There are several other unique linguistic enclaves in the American South. Among them is that of Tangier Island, Virginia, as well as theOuter Banks North Carolina, which some scholars claim preserves a unique English dialect from the colonial period. The New Orleans or"Yat" dialect is similar to Northeastern port city accents because of an influx of German and Irish immigrants similar to those of the Northeast.^{[citation needed]} Many^[who?] are familiar with the French-basedCajun French that is spoken in the southern half ofLouisiana.

Other distinct languages includeCajun French (Louisiana) andIsleño Spanish (Louisiana, see alsoCanarian Spanish).

The US South also contains many indigenous languages from the Native AmericanMuskogean,Caddoan,Siouan–Catawban,Iroquoian,Algonquian,Yuchi,Chitimacha,Natchez,Tunica,Adai,Timucua, andAtakapa families. The historical record seems to suggest a picture of great linguistic diversity (similar to California) although most languages mentioned were not documented. Several southeastern languages have becomeextinct and all areendangered. The influence of native languages has led to distinct Indian varieties of English.

There continues to be debate about what constitutes the basic elements of Southern culture.^[51] This debate is influenced partly because the South is such a large region. As a result, there are a number of cultural variations among states in the region.

Among the variations found in Southern culture are:

• TheDeep South was first settled by the English from theChesapeake colonies of Virginia and Maryland, and later South Carolina. This was the first area that developed plantations for cash crops of tobacco, rice andindigo. Later, cotton, and hemp became important cash crops, as well.Planters would import large numbers of Africans as slave labor. The coastal areas of theOld South were dominated by wealthy planters, who controlled local government.^{[citation needed]}
• TheUpland South or "Upper South" have historical, political, and cultural divisions that make it differ from lower-lying elevation areas and the Deep South. For example, theAppalachian andOzark mountain region landforms differing in settlement from that of low-lying areas such as theVirginia Tidewater,Gulf Coast,South Carolina Lowcountry, and theMississippi Delta. By contrast, farmers in the Upland South cultivated land for subsistence, and few held slaves. The Upland South's population has mainlyScots-Irish andEnglish ancestry. Because settlers were chieflyyeoman farmers, many upland areas did not support the Confederate cause during the American Civil War (seeAndrew Johnson). The Upland South also had many areas that continued to support the Republican Party while the remainder of the white South supported Democrats during theSolid South era.^{[citation needed]}
• Areas having experienced a large influx of newcomers typically have been less likely to hold onto a distinctly Southern identity and cultural influences. Today, partly because of continuing population migration patterns between urban areas in the North and South, historically "Southern" larger urban areas, such asAtlanta,Austin,Charlotte,Dallas,Houston,Raleigh-Durham,Jacksonville,Orlando, andSan Antonio have assimilated modern metropolitan identities distinct from their historic "Southern" heritage. However, while these metropolitan areas have had their original southern culture somewhat diluted, they nonetheless have largely preserved their distinct "Southern" identity.^[52]

Southern Alabama north ofMobile was settled predominately by large plantation owners and slaves moved west from their original settlements on the coasts of South Carolina and Georgia. These settlers originally had slave plantations inBarbados and sought to expand their plantation based economy. This region is mainly known for its large African American population and historic cultivation of wheat, cotton, and rice. It is the epitome of what is considered the Deep South. Today, this region is the poorest in the state and one of the poorest regions in the country. It still remains mostly rural and has seen minimal development.

Unlike the rest of southern Alabama, which was settled by British plantation owners, Mobile and the Gulf Coast was settled by Spanish and French settlers much earlier than the rest of the state. Mobile likely has more in common withNew Orleans than it does with the rest of the state.^[53] Today, Mobile still retains some of its French traditions, such as having a large Catholic presence and annual celebrations ofMardi Gras, which first began in the United States in the city.^[54]

Northern Alabama was settled by Northern English and Scots Irish settlers who came to the United States. These Appalachian settlers^{[clarification needed]} were mostly small farmers—who did not own any slaves and had little voting power due to the rich planters in the South, who controlled the government. Today this region is still mostly rural, but is developing urban areas, such as cities likeBirmingham andHuntsville attracting outsiders for work.^[55]

With its northern border at the boundary of theUpper South and theMidwest,Kentucky demonstrates multiple cultural influences.^[56] A study in the 1990s revealed that 79% of Kentuckians agreed they were living within the south. The study also showed that 84% of Texans and 82% of Virginians believe they live within the south. It also showed between 80 and 90% of residents in Mississippi, Louisiana, Alabama, Tennessee, Arkansas, Georgia and the Carolinas described themselves as southerners.^[57] This is likely because regional identification often varies dramatically within Kentucky. For example, many considerNorthern Kentucky to be the most Midwestern region, as it shares culture withCincinnati. Studies show that a significant minority of people in Northern Kentucky identify with the South. Conversely,southern Ohio andsouthern Indiana are highly Southern in comparison to most of the Midwest, as is the "Little Egypt" region ofsouthern Illinois.^{[citation needed]}

Some sources treat Southern Indiana as essentially the upper tip of Upland South culture, while others maintain that Southern culture, while significant, is not dominant in the region.^[58]Louisville is viewed as culturally and economically Midwestern in some analyses, because of how it rapidly industrialized during the late 19th century (although not to the same extent as most northern cities), as opposed to the slow industrialization that occurred in the South.^[59] Other observers consider Louisville to be southern culturally, due to dialect and various other aspects of culture.^[60] It is often described as both "the Gateway to the South" and "the northernmost Southern city and southernmost Northern city." Unlike the remainder of the state, Louisville, Covington, and Newport received large numbers of German immigrants due to manufacturing interests on the Ohio river, thus making the culture there somewhat distinct from the rest of the state. Had Kentucky been a free-state, prior to the Civil War, it would have likely drawn more German immigration, as there was usually a relatively small number of slaves in the areas where Germans did settle.^[61] As of the 1980s, the only counties in the United States where over half of the population cited "English" as their only ancestry group were all in the hills of eastern Kentucky (and made up virtually every county in this region).^[62] In the 1980 census, 1,267,079 Kentuckians out of a total population of 2,554,359 cited that they were ofEnglish ancestry, making them 49 percent of the state at that time.^[63]

While varying degrees of southern cultural influence can be found in Kentucky inside the Cincinnati area and Louisville, smaller cities such asOwensboro,Lexington,Bowling Green,Hopkinsville andPaducah, together with most of the state's rural areas, have continued to be more distinctly Southern in character. Outside of those two specific areas, southern culture, dialect, mannerisms, etc. are prominent in Kentucky. Southern cuisine is also quite common across the state. Western Kentucky is famous for a regional style of southern barbecue, and other forms of southern food such as catfish, country ham, and green beans.^[64] Today most of the state, outside of Northern Kentucky, shares a cultural identity withTennessee and the rest of the Upland South in ancestry, dialect, and various other aspects of culture.^{[48][65][66][67]}

In most contexts, especially culturally, the state is grouped as part of the south.^{[47][68][69][70][71]}

TheCharlotte andRaleigh–Durham areas have attracted many new residents due to economic growth. This includes the banking/finance industries in Charlotte, along with the universities and high-tech industries in Raleigh-Durham.Wilmington has also become a center of Midwestern and Northern migration for its temperate coastal climate and growing business community. Meanwhile,Asheville and its surrounding area has tended to attract more progressively minded transplants, due to its longstanding reputation as a center of liberal thought and open-minded attitudes, and retirees settle here due to its scenic mountain setting.^{[citation needed]}

In addition to an influx ofNortherners, the job markets in North Carolina's three largest metropolitan regions—Charlotte, Raleigh-Durham, and theGreensboro–Winston-Salem–High PointPiedmont Triad—have also attracted large and growingLatino andAsian American immigration and migration. A report released by the Brookings Institution in May 2006 entitledDiversity Spreads Out, noted that the Charlotte metro area ranked second nationally with a 49.8% growth rate in its Hispanic population between 2000 and 2004. The Raleigh-Durham metro area followed in third place with a 46.7% rate of growth.^[72]

Settlement of theOklahoma Territory began as a direct result of the Civil War. Southerners escapingReconstruction, largely populated the southern and eastern regions of the state. The term "Little Dixie" was first used in reference to southeastern Oklahoma during the 20th century. Italian laborers began arriving in eastern Oklahoma in the 1870s.^[73]

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In the1980 United States census, the largest ancestry group reported in Texas wasEnglish, with 3,083,323 Texans who identify as being of English ancestry forming roughly 27% of the population at the time.^[74] Their ancestry primarily goes back to the original thirteen colonies and for this reason many of them today simply claim "American" ancestry. Because of its size and unique history, particularly having once been Mexican territory, and later a nation in its own right (i.e. theRepublic of Texas), Texas' modern-day relationship to the rest of the South is often a subject of debate and discussion. It has been described as "a Southern state, certainly, yet not completely in or of the South." The size and cultural distinctiveness of Texas prohibit easy categorization of the entire state into any recognized region. Geographic, economic and cultural diversity among regions of the state preclude treating Texas as a region in its own right. Notable extremes range fromEast Texas, which is often considered an extension of theDeep South, toFar West Texas, which is generally acknowledged to be part of theinterior Southwest.

The upperTexas Panhandle and theSouth Plains areas ofWest Texas are part of theGreat Plains. The former has much in common both culturally and geographically with Midwestern states like Kansas and Nebraska. The South Plains, though originally settled primarily by Anglo Southerners, has become a blend of both Southern and Southwestern culture due to rapidly increasing Hispanic population.^{[citation needed]}

The larger cities of Texas, such asAustin,Dallas, andHouston—with their burgeoning knowledge-based economies—have attracted migrants from other regions of the United States, particularly the Midwest and West Coast. Combined with the influence of increasing numbers from an African AmericanNew Great Migration,^[75] and also from Latin America and Asia, the historic "Southern culture" has been transformed.

However—partly due to its membership in theConfederacy and history as part of theSolid South—and the fact much of the state lies within theBible Belt—it is usually considered more of a Southern than Western state. Also, linguistic maps of Texas place most of it within the spheres of upper, mid- and Gulf-Southern dialects, helping to further identify the state as being Southern (use of Southern colloquialisms such asy'all andain't are still very much widespread in Texas).

Based on a study from the late 1990s, 82% of Virginians believe they live in the South and most identify more with the South than with any other region.^[76] They uphold many traditions and beliefs of the South and take pride in their heritage. However, areas such asNorthern Virginia, Richmond, and the Hampton Roads region have attracted many internal migrants coming for job opportunities with the federal government, military, and related businesses during and sinceWorld War II. Northern Virginia also connects to the emergence and expansion of theNortheast Megalopolis. More expansion resulted from thedot-com bubble around the start of the 21st century. Economically linked to Washington, D.C. and having a large migrant presence, residents of urban areas in Virginia tend to consider its culture moreMid-Atlantic than Southern.^[77]

Virginian culture was spread across the Chesapeake region during colonial times by settlers and strongly influenced the culture of the Lowland South through the transport of slaves. Virginia's coastal areas were heavily plantation based, relying on tobacco production for its economic base. Prior to the Civil War, Virginia was the largest slave state population wise and profited greatly from breeding and selling slaves to the Deep South.^[78] These slaves were thoroughly integrated into colonial Virginian culture and brought their traditions from Virginia to the Deep South where they blended with Gullah and Creole traditions. Following the Civil War and Reconstruction, Virginia went through the dark period of Jim Crow laws and faced the era ofMassive Resistance to school desegregation.^[79] However, cities like Richmond and Norfolk have always been much more progressive and urban in culture than many rural areas of the state. They were known early on for having large Free Black, Quaker, and Jewish populations, much industry, and significant immigration from Eastern Europe up until the Civil War, in which Richmond was made the Confederate capital despite voting against secession.^[80] Today, Richmond and Norfolk are often considered the border between the Mid-Atlantic and Upper South, having distinct Southern characteristics and also ties to the Northeast Megalopolis.^[81] These remain the only two large cities in the country in which old fashioned Chesapeake Bay style culture is found with the distinctive Tidewater accent and many historic plantations still prevalent throughout the region.

Modern Virginia has seen an ongoing tendency for Northeasterners who move to the state to identifying separately from the rest of the South politically and culturally.^[82] However, they choose to remain in Virginia for better economic opportunities than those available further North, as well as the low tax rates.^[83]

West Virginia was formed during the American Civil War in 1863 from 50 western counties ofVirginia and is currently composed of 55 counties. Many of the counties in the new state had supported Virginia and the Confederacy during the war but were included for territorial reasons, which resulted in a"Redeemer" government in 1876.^[84][85]

Many legacies of its Virginia heritage remain, such as county and local place names. The state constitution is based on the antebellum constitution of Virginia. As recently as 2007 an 1849 Virginia statute was used in a county prosecution.^[86] Historicplantation houses are found throughout the state, legacies of its antebellum origins. West Virginia was the last slave state admitted to the Union. The state legislature consists of asenate and ahouse of delegates. The state government belongs to theSouthern Governors Association and the Southern Legislative Conference.^[87][88]

It is the 7th most Protestant state and the 7th most religious state in the United States.^[89][90] Out migration has been a steady phenomenon, beginning after the Civil War when ex-Confederates moved into southern Ohio to escape the political sanctions in their new home state.^[91] In the 20th century out migration increased as West Virginians moved north for jobs in industry.^[92]

West Virginia has a high rate of family owned farms and the state produces large numbers of poultry, corn, apples and peaches.^[93] Tobacco production peaked in 1909 at 14,400,000 pounds, and was the second most valuable crop as recently as 1983 but is no longer a popular commodity.^[94]

Many southern dishes are common in the state; biscuits and sausage gravy, chicken and dumplings, sweet tea, cornbread and beans and condiments such as cole slaw and chow chow accompany barbecued meats. The southern diet has been blamed for health problems such as obesity and diabetes and smoking is among the highest rates in the United States.^[95]Southern Appalachian dialect can be heard in much of the state though mostly south ofClarksburg.^[96]

Country music is one of the most popular genres in the state,WWVA Jamboree out of Wheeling was the second oldest venue for country music after theGrand Ole Opry in Nashville.Charleston is one of the highest per capita markets for country music.^[97] Some of West Virginia's notable musicians includeLittle Jimmy Dickens,Brad Paisley,Hazel Dickens,Red Sovine,Hawkshaw Hawkins,Molly O'Day, and the rockabilly musicianHasil Adkins.

Similar to otherBorder States,Maryland has regions that are culturally Southern,^[98] and it is situated below theMason–Dixon line. Prior to the second half of the 20th century, Maryland was largely Southern with strong connections to northern industry as Baltimore served as a center for grain trading. However, economic growth and demographic shifts of the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s overshadowed Maryland's Southern culture. The growing service economy and ensuing southward migration ofNew Englanders and more solidlyNortheastern workers, transformed theI-95 corridor and theBaltimore-Washington Metropolitan Area into robustly Mid-Atlantic areas. Suburbs ofWashington, D.C., have also become more Mid-Atlantic in nature, and less culturally southern than before.

Portions of Maryland, specificallySouthern Maryland and theEastern Shore of Maryland remain largely culturally Southern, driven by agriculture and commercial fishing. Most of the land is rural and there are but a few large population centers. Many local restaurants in these two areas still servesweet tea and dishes including or composed entirely ofgreens, in addition to menus heavy with fried food. Many dialectic studies show thatSt. Mary's County in Southern Maryland andDorchester County,Somerset County,Wicomico County, andWorcester County in the Eastern Shore havesouthern accents.

Western Maryland is consideredAppalachian, and is largely rural. The region is very similar to the neighboring West Virginia, Virginia, andPennsylvania.

In a manner similar to Maryland, Delaware exhibits characteristics of both the Northeast and South. Unlike other surrounding states which are either north or south of the Mason–Dixon line, Delaware is uniquely situated east of the line (as the line takes a vertical turn along the state's western border). Generally, the rural Southern (or "Slower Lower") regions of Delaware below theChesapeake and Delaware Canal embody a Southern culture,^[99][100] while densely populated Northern Delaware above the canal—particularly Wilmington, a part of thePhiladelphia metropolitan area—has more in common with that of the Northeast.^[101]

Missouri is classified as a Midwestern state by the Census Bureau and a large majority of its residents.^[102] St. Louis was known as the "Gateway to the West" when settlement was expanding. The northern edge of the Ozark Plateau was settled chiefly by mid-to-late 19th century German immigrants, who founded numerous vineyards and wineries. Due to this, Missouri was the second-largest wine-producing state before Prohibition, which destroyed the industry. Wineries have been rebuilt since the later decades of the 20th century, and Missouri wineries are competing well in national festivals. Part of the Missouri River valley, from beyond St. Louis suburbs inSt. Charles County to east ofJefferson City, is known as theMissouri Rhineland because of the extensive vineyards and wineries based on German immigrant tradition and descendants.

In the antebellum years, many settlers from Upper South states, such as Virginia and Kentucky, migrated to the counties of central and western Missouri along the Missouri River, where they could cultivate tobacco and hemp. Because these southerners brought their culture and slaveholding practices with them, Missouri was admitted to the Union as a slaveholding state. During the mid-20th century, this area became known asLittle Dixie. Before theCivil War, six of the counties included in this area had populations in which more than 25% were enslaved African Americans, the highest concentrations in the state outside the cotton plantations in the Mississippi Delta.^[103] Antebellum houses typical of the South, still stand in some of Little Dixie. All the crops grown there today are corn, soybeans and wheat, for which the area was better suited than for Southern crops like cotton or tobacco. Rural southern Missouri in the Ozark Plateau andthe bootheel, are definitively southern in culture.^{[citation needed]}

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Many areas ofNew Mexico,Arizona, andCalifornia were predominantly settled by European American southerners as they moved west in the 19th and early 20th centuries. For instance, pro-Confederate governments were established in what is now Arizona and New Mexico during the Civil War and, at one point, southern California was on the cusp of breaking away from northern California and joining the Confederacy.

In the aftermath of the Civil War, severalfreedmen's towns were founded by emancipated African Americans from the south.^[104]

Southerners migrated to industrial cities in theMidwest for work before and afterWorld War II. They went to states such asMichigan,Indiana, andOhio, as well asMissouri andIllinois. During theGreat Depression andDust Bowl crisis, a large influx of migrants from areas such as Oklahoma, Arkansas and theTexas Panhandle settled in California. These "Okie" and "Arkie" migrants and their descendants remain a strong influence on the culture of theCentral Valley of California, especially around the cities ofBakersfield andFresno.

More than 6.5 million African Americans left the segregated South for the industrial cities of the Midwest andWest Coast during theGreat Migration, beginning in World War I and extending to 1970. Many migrants from Arkansas, Louisiana and Texas moved to California during and after World War II because of jobs in the defense industry. As a result, many African Americans, as well as European Americans, have "Northern" and "Southern" branches of their families. Significant parts of African-American culture, such as music, literary forms and cuisine, have been rooted in the South, but have changed with urban northern and western influences as well.

As an important feature of Southern culture, the cuisine of the South is often described as one of its most distinctive traits. Popular sayings include "Food is Love" and "If it ain't fried it ain't cooked".^{[citation needed]} Southern culinary culture has readily adopted indigenous influences.Corn meal cereal known as "grits",corn fritters,cornbread,brunswick stew, andbarbecue are a few of the more common examples of foods adopted directly from southeastern native-American communities. Nevertheless, a great many regional varieties have also developed. The variety of cuisines range fromTex-Mex cuisine,Cajun andCreole, traditionalantebellum dishes, all types of seafood, along with Carolina, Virginia (which shares strong similarities with North Carolina) and Memphis styles of barbecue.

Traditional African American Southern food is often calledsoul food. While not typically as spicy as cajun food, it incorporates a variety of herbs and flour.^{[citation needed]} Most Southern cities and even smaller towns now offer a wide variety of cuisines of other origins such asChinese,Italian,Japanese,French, andMiddle Eastern foods, as well as restaurants still serving primarily Southern specialties, so-called "home cooking" establishments. Some notable "home cooking" meals includefried chicken,corn on the cob, greens withpot liquor, vegetable stew, chicken and dumplings, andchicken fried steak.

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Iced tea is commonly associated with the South. Specifically,sweet tea, or brewed iced tea sweetened with granulated sugar, has traditionally been served in the South. In fact, most southern restaurants serve sweet tea in addition to "unsweet tea", whereas most restaurants in other regions serve only (unsweetened) iced tea.^{[citation needed]}

Many of the most popular Americansoft drinks originated in the South (Coca-Cola,Pepsi-Cola,Mountain Dew,Cheerwine,Big Red,Dr Pepper,RC Cola, and RC Cola'sNehi brand products). In much of Oklahoma, Arkansas, Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, Texas, and other parts of the South, the term "soft drink" or "soda" is discarded in favor of "Coke" (seeGenericized trademark).

Official support forProhibition existed in the Southern states before and after the18th Amendment was in force in the US. Due to widespread restrictions on alcohol production, illegally distilled liquor ormoonshine has long been associated (often rather stereotypically) with working-class and poor people in much of the region, especially in southernAppalachia.^[105] Many^[which?] southern states arecontrol states that monopolize and highly regulate the distribution and sale ofalcoholic beverages. Many counties in the South, particularly outside of the large metropolitan areas, aredry counties that do not allow for alcohol sales in retail outlets. However, many dry counties still allow for "private clubs" often with low daily fees to serve alcohol on the premises.

New Orleans is known as "the City that Care Forgot", epitomized by the sayinglaissez les bons temps rouler (let the good times roll). The Crescent City's culture revolves around food, drink, and community celebrations.Hurricanes are a famousFrench Quarter drink, as aresazerac cocktails andabsinthe.

TheUpper South, specificallyKentucky, is known for its production ofbourbon whiskey, which is a popular base for cocktails. As of 2005, Kentucky was credited with producing 95% of the world'sbourbon,^[106] which has been referred to as America's only nativespirit. Themint julep is traditionally depicted as a popular beverage among more affluent Southerners. Many other bourbons are produced in Kentucky includingEvan Williams,Wild Turkey, andBulleit.Southern Comfort is a flavored distilled spirit modeled after bourbon and made inLouisiana.

Another form of spirit produced in the South isTennessee Whiskey, withJack Daniel's, made inLynchburg, Tennessee being the number one selling whiskey in the world.George Dickel is produced in nearbyTullahoma, Tennessee.

Born in theBoonslick region of Missouri to parents who had recently emigrated from Tennessee,Mark Twain is often placed within the pantheon of great Southern writers. Many of his works demonstrate his extensive knowledge of the Mississippi River and the South; also included in his works as a frequent theme were the injustice of slavery and the culture of Protestant public morality.

One of the best known southern writers of the 20th century isWilliam Faulkner, who won theNobel Prize in Literature in 1949. Faulkner brought new techniques such asstream of consciousness and complex techniques to American writing (such as in his novelAs I Lay Dying). Faulkner was part of the Southern Renaissance movement.

The Southern Renaissance (also known as Southern Renascence)^[107] was the reinvigoration of AmericanSouthern literature that began in the 1920s and 1930s with the appearance of writers such as Faulkner,Caroline Gordon,Elizabeth Madox Roberts,Katherine Anne Porter,Allen Tate,Tennessee Williams, andRobert Penn Warren, among others.

The Southern Renaissance was the first mainstream movement within Southern literature to address the criticisms of Southern cultural and intellectual life that had emerged both from within the Southern literary tradition and from outsiders, most notably the satiristH. L. Mencken. In the 1920s Mencken led the attack on the genteel tradition in American literature, ridiculing the provincialism of American intellectual life. In his 1920 essay "The Sahara of the Bozart" (a pun on a Southern pronunciation of 'beaux-arts') he singled out the South as the most provincial and intellectually barren region of the US, claiming that since the Civil War, intellectual and cultural life there had gone into terminal decline.^[108] This created a storm of protest from within conservative circles in the South. However, many emerging Southern writers who were already highly critical of contemporary life in the South were emboldened by Mencken's essay. On the other hand, Mencken's subsequent bitter attacks on aspects of Southern culture that they valued amazed and horrified them. In response to the attacks of Mencken and his imitators, Southern writers were provoked to a reassertion of Southern uniqueness and a deeper exploration of the theme of Southern identity.^[109]

Other well-known Southern writers includeErskine Caldwell,Edgar Allan Poe,Joel Chandler Harris,Sidney Lanier,Cleanth Brooks,Pat Conroy,Harper Lee,Zora Neale Hurston,Eudora Welty,Ralph Ellison,Thomas Wolfe,William Styron,Flannery O'Connor,Carson McCullers,James Dickey,Willie Morris,Tom Wolfe,Truman Capote,Walker Percy,Charles Portis,Barry Hannah,Alice Walker,Cormac McCarthy,Anne Rice,Shelby Foote,John Grisham,Charlaine Harris,James Agee,Hunter S. Thompson,Wendell Berry,Bobbie Ann Mason,Harry Crews, and the authors known as theSouthern Agrarians.

Possibly the most famous Southern novel of the 20th century isGone with the Wind byMargaret Mitchell, published in 1937. Another famous Southern novel,To Kill a Mockingbird byHarper Lee, won thePulitzer Prize after it was published in 1960.

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The musical heritage of the South was developed by both white and black artists, both influencing each other directly and indirectly.

The South's musical history actually starts before the Civil War, with the songs of the African slaves and traditional folk music.Blues,country,funk,gospel,jazz (including ragtime, popularized by SouthernerScott Joplin),folk music,rhythm-and-blues,spirituals,soulrock-and-roll,southern hip-hop, andzydeco are all music genres that were created byBlack Americans in the rural South.^{[110][111][112]} In addition,old-time music,beach music,bluegrass, andAppalachian folk music were born in the South.

Stax Records, Hi Records, and Goldwax Records released deep soul singles and albums.^[113] In the 1960s, Stax Records emerged as a leading competitor of Motown Records, laying the groundwork for later stylistic innovations in the process. In general, country music is based on the folk music of white Southerners, and blues and rhythm and blues is based on African American southern forms. However, whites and blacks alike have contributed to each of these genres, and there is a considerable overlap between the traditional music of blacks and whites in the South, especially in gospel music forms. A stylish variant of country music (predominantly produced in Nashville) has been a consistent, widespread fixture of American pop since the 1950s, while insurgent forms (i.e. bluegrass) have traditionally appealed to more discerning sub-cultural and rural audiences. Blues dominated the African American music charts from the advent of modern recording until the mid-1950s, when it was supplanted by the less guttural and forlorn sounds of rock and R&B. Nevertheless, unadulterated blues (along with early rock and roll) is still the subject of reverential adoration throughout much of Europe and cult popularity in isolated pockets of the United States.

Zydeco,Cajun andswamp pop, despite having never enjoyed greater regional or mainstream popularity, still thrive throughoutFrench Louisiana and its peripheries, such as Southeastern Texas. These unique Louisianan styles offolk music are celebrated as part of the traditional heritage of the people of Louisiana. Conversely, bluegrass music has acquired a sophisticated cachet and distinct identity from mainstream country music through the fusion recordings of artists likeBela Fleck,David Grisman, and theNew Grass Revival; traditional bluegrass and Appalachian mountain music experienced a strong resurgence after the release of 2001'sO Brother, Where Art Thou?.

Rock n' roll largely began in the South in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Early rock n' roll musicians from the South includeJerry Lee Lewis,Buddy Holly,Little Richard,Fats Domino,Big Mama Thornton,Bo Diddley,Elvis Presley,Ray Charles,James Brown,Otis Redding, andCarl Perkins, among many others.Hank Williams,Charlie Feathers, andJohnny Cash, while generally regarded as "country" singers, also had a significant role in the development of rock music, giving rise to the "crossover" genre ofrockabilly. Many who got their start in the regional show business in the South eventually banked on mainstream national and international success as well:Elvis Presley andDolly Parton are two such examples of artists that have transcended genres.

The South has continued to produce rock music in later decades. In the 1970s, a wave of Southern rock andblues rock groups, led byThe Allman Brothers Band,Lynyrd Skynyrd,ZZ Top, and38 Special, became popular.Macon, Georgia-basedCapricorn Records helped to spearhead the Southern rock movement, and was the original home to many of the genre's most famous groups. At the other end of the spectrum, along with the aforementioned Brown and Stax, New Orleans'Allen Toussaint andThe Meters helped to define the funk subgenre of rhythm and blues in the 1970s.

Since the late 1980s, the spread ofrap music has led to the rise of the musical subgenre of theDirty South. Atlanta, Houston, Memphis, Miami, and New Orleans have long been major centers ofhip hop culture.^{[citation needed]}

Many of the roots ofalternative rock are often considered to come from the South as well, with bands such asR.E.M.,the B-52s, andIndigo Girls forever associated with the musically fertile college town ofAthens, Georgia. Cities such asAustin,Knoxville,Chapel Hill,Nashville andAtlanta also have thrivingindie rock and live music scenes. Austin is home to the long-runningSouth by Southwest music and arts festival, while several influential independent music labels (Sugar Hill, Merge, Yep Rock and the now-defunct Mammoth Records) were founded in the Chapel Hill area. Several influentialdeath metal bands have recorded albums atMorrisound Recording inTemple Terrace,Florida and the studio is considered an important touchstone in the genre's development.

There is a large undergroundheavy metal scene in the Southern United States.Death metal can trace some of its origins to Tampa, Florida. Bands such asDeicide,Morbid Angel,Six Feet Under, andCannibal Corpse, among others, have come out of this scene. The South is also wheresludge metal was born, and where its pioneering acts,Eyehategod^[114] andCrowbar,^[115] come from,^[116] as well as other notable bands of the style such asDown^[117] andCorrosion of Conformity.^[118] Other well known metal bands from the South includeCrossfade,Pantera,Hellyeah,Lamb of God, andMastodon. This has helped coin the termsouthern metal which is well received by the vast majority in metal circles around the world. Other heavy metal andhardcore punk subgenres, includingmetalcore andpost-hardcore, have also become increasingly popular in this region.

Main article:Sports in the United States

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While the South hasNational Football League (NFL) franchises inDallas,Houston,Miami,Atlanta,New Orleans,Tampa,Jacksonville,Charlotte, andNashville, the region is noted for the intensity with which people followcollege football teams, especially those in theSoutheastern Conference (SEC),Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC), andBig 12 Conference (Big 12). In states such asTexas andOklahoma,high school football, particularly in smaller communities, is a dominating activity.^{[citation needed]}

Basketball is also popular, particularlycollege basketball. TheDuke Blue Devils andNorth Carolina Tar Heels enjoyone of the great rivalries in American sports.^[119] As of 2019,Kentucky as a state has 11 national championships won by two schools, theUniversity of Louisville and theUniversity of Kentucky;North Carolina has 13 statewide national championships, coming from the combined victories ofDuke,UNC, andNC State.^[120] TheNational Basketball Association (NBA) is well-represented in the South as well, with franchises inAtlanta,Charlotte,Orlando,Miami,Memphis,New Orleans,Houston,Dallas,San Antonio, andOklahoma City.

Taking advantage of warmer late-winter weather, manyprofessional baseball teams began training in Florida in thespring, starting in the 1920s and 15 teams continue totrain there each year. Regular seasonMajor League Baseball (MLB) in Atlanta began in 1966, when theMilwaukee Braves transferred its franchise to the city.Expansion teams were added to Texas with theHouston Astros andTexas Rangers in the 1960s and 70s, while Florida became home to theMiami Marlins in 1993 andTampa Bay Rays in 1998. At one time, a number ofminor league baseball leagues flourished in the South. The region is still home to more minor league teams than any other region of the United States.^{[citation needed]}

Normally associated with cold climates, fiveNational Hockey League (NHL) franchises are based in the south: theDallas Stars,Tampa Bay Lightning,Florida Panthers,Nashville Predators, andCarolina Hurricanes (six if theWashington Capitals are counted as Southern).

The South is also the birthplace ofNASCAR auto racing. Journalist Ben Shackleford says it flourishes there because "the violence and danger of the sport resonated with growing idealization of the traditional Southern culture."^[121] Race tracks that host NASCAR sanctioned events are found in several different locations in the South, includingMartinsville, Virginia,Talladega, Alabama,Bristol, Tennessee,Darlington, South Carolina,Dover, Delaware,Sparta, Kentucky,Daytona, Florida,Charlotte,Atlanta,Miami,Richmond, Virginia, andFort Worth, Texas.

Other popular sports in the South includegolf (which can be played almost year-round because of the South's mild climate),fishing,soccer, andhuntingwild game.Augusta, Georgia is the host city ofThe Masters (one of golf'spremier tournaments held each spring) and home to 15 golf courses.

Atlanta was the host of the1996 Summer Olympics.

Many critically acclaimed movies have been set in the cultural background of the South. A partial list of these films follows – for a more complete listing of Southern cinema, seelist of films set in the Southern United States.

Following the boom of television in the 1950s, many network television shows were set in the South and/or became very popular with Southerners. They included:

• The Real McCoys (1957–1963)
• The Andy Griffith Show (1960–1968)
• The Beverly Hillbillies (1962–1971)
• Petticoat Junction (1963–1970)
• Flipper (1964–1967)
• Green Acres (1965–1971)
• Hee Haw (1969–1992)

By 1971, sponsors had shifted for this formula and CBS consequently cancelled all of its Southern shows, as part of therural purge.^[122] (OnlyHee Haw survived, in syndication.)

In 1976,Jimmy Carter was elected as the firstPresident of the United States from theDeep Southsubregion. The election resulted in reporters swarming into Carter's small southern town ofPlains, Georgia. Speculation about his lifestyle andSouthern Baptist faith, renewed interest in Southern culture.^[123] A new crop of television shows followed within the next decade, such as:

• Carter Country (1977–1979)
• Dallas (1978–1991)
• The Dukes of Hazzard (1979–1985)
• Mama's Family (1983–1990)
• The Golden Girls (1985–1992)
• Matlock (1986–1995)
• Designing Women (1986–1993)
• In the Heat of the Night (1988–1995)

In addition, network television shows set in the South since 1990 include:

• Evening Shade (1990–1994)
• Walker, Texas Ranger (1993–2001)
• Beavis and Butt-head (1993–1997)
• Reba (2001–2007)
• King of the Hill (1997–2009)
• One Tree Hill (2003–2012)
• American Dad! (2005–present)
• Friday Night Lights (2006–2011)
• The Riches (2007–2008)
• True Blood (2007–2014)
• The Cleveland Show (2009–2013)
• Eastbound and Down (2009–2013)
• Justified (2010–2015)
• The Walking Dead (2010–present)
• Hart of Dixie (2011–2015)
• Dallas (2012–2014)
• Nashville (2012–2018)
• True Detective (2014–present)^[124]
• Bless the Harts (2019–2021)
• Outer Banks (2020–present)
• Young Sheldon (2017–2024)

Critics point out that some of these shows and films, stereotype Southerners as "hapless hicks"^[125] or "a universally simple and often silly group of inhabitants",^[122] especially in contrast to the far more complex literary portrayals, and argue that they do not fairly represent Southerners' culture.

Since the early 19th century, Southerners have been the subject ofstereotypes, epithets and ridicule. Traces remain in the media, usually in humorous form, as in the 1960s TV series,The Beverly Hillbillies, asituation comedy, which depicts the cultural dissonance of a poor backwoods family that moves to upscale California after striking oil on their land.^[126] Many poor Southern whites make fun of the stereotypes.^[127] Images typically depict Southerners as laid-back, hospitable, jolly and carefree—and lazy.^[128] The hostile epithet "white trash" originated among house slaves in the 1830s to ridicule whites of low income or low morality.^[129]

During the early periods of the South, travelers often emphasized the backward, uneducated, uncouth, dirty or unhygienic, impoverished, and violent aspects of Southern life. A favorite theme especially regardingAppalachia and theOzarks, portrayed "hicks" isolated from modern culture as shiftless male hunters, violently feuding clans like the Hatfields and McCoys, degraded women smoking corncob pipes, religious snake handlers, and compulsive banjo players.^[130]

The national stereotype of the South in 1917 can be glimpsed in a study of tobacco usage in the late 19th century written by a Northern historian who paid close attention to class and gender:^[131]

The chewing of tobacco was well-nigh universal. This habit had been widespread among the agricultural population of America both North and South before the war. Soldiers had found the quid a solace in the field and continued to revolve it in their mouths upon returning to their homes. Out of doors where his life was principally led the chewer spat upon his lands without offense to other men, and his homes and public buildings were supplied with spittoons. Brown and yellow parabolas were projected to right and left toward these receivers, but very often without the careful aim which made for cleanly living. Even the pews of fashionable churches were likely to contain these familiar conveniences. The large numbers of Southern men, and these were of the better class (officers in the Confederate army and planters, worth $20,000 or more, and barred from general amnesty) who presented themselves for the pardon of President Johnson, while they sat awaiting his pleasure in the ante-room at the White House, covered its floor with pools and rivulets of their spittle. An observant traveller in the South in 1865 said that in his belief seven-tenths of all persons above the age of twelve years, both male and female, used tobacco in some form. Women could be seen at the doors of their cabins in their bare feet, in their dirty one-piece cotton garments, their chairs tipped back, smoking pipes made of corn cobs into which were fitted reed stems or goose quills. Boys of eight or nine years of age and half-grown girls smoked. Women and girls "dipped" in their houses, on their porches, in the public parlors of hotels and in the streets.

TheProgressive Era (1896–1917) brought attention to the problems the South faced. An influential scholarly study was Horace Kephart'sOur Southern Highlanders (1913), which portrayed an isolated and culturally inert people.^[132] The bleak image inspired northern philanthropy, such as the Rockefeller foundations, to intervene using modern public health techniques and to promote better schooling.^[133]

Since the 1930s, however,Hollywood has used stereotypes of the South to contrast virtues of simplerural life, with the corruption that can be found in the city.^[126][134]

Comic strips dealt with northern urban experiences until 1934, whenAl Capp introducedL'il Abner, the first strip based in the South. Although Capp was from Connecticut, he spent 43 years teaching the world about Dogpatch, reaching 60 million readers in over 900 American newspapers and 100 foreign papers in 28 countries. Inge says Capp, "had a profound influence on the way the world viewed the American South." Other popular strips on Southern life includedPogo,Snuffy Smith andKudzu.^[135] Cultural historian Anthony Harkins argues that Dogpatch's hillbilly setting "remained a central touchstone, serving both as a microcosm and a distorting carnival mirror of broader American society."^[136]

• Bartley, Numan V., ed. (1988).The evolution of Southern culture.Athens, Georgia:University of Georgia.ISBN 0-8203-0993-1.
• Boles, John B. (2004) [2002].A companion to the American South.Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell.ISBN 0-631-21319-8.
• Botkin, B. A.A Treasury of Southern Folklore: Stories, Ballads, Traditions, and Folkways of the People of the South (1949)
• Cash, W. J.The Mind of the South (1941)
• Cobb, James C.Away Down South : A History of Southern Identity (2005)
• Fischer, D. H.Albion's seed: Four British folkways in America Oxford University Press 1989
• Gorn, E. J. "Gouge, and bite, pull hair and scratch: The social significance of fighting in the southern backcountry".American Historical Review (1985). 90:1, 18–43.
• Gray, Richard and Owen Robinson, eds.A Companion to the Literature and Culture of the American South (2004)
• Harkins, Anthony.Hillbilly: A Cultural History of an American Icon Oxford University Press, 2004
• Suzanne W. Jones and Sharon Monteith, eds.South to a New Place: Region, Literature, Culture Louisiana State University Press, 2002.
• Joyner, Charles W.Traditions: Southern History & Folk Culture 1999
• Lowe, John, and Fred Hobson, eds.Bridging Southern Cultures: An Interdisciplinary Approach (2005)
• McWhiney, Grady.Cracker Culture: Celtic Ways in the Old South University of Alabama Press, 1989
• Naipaul, V. S.A turn in the South (1989).
• Ownby, Ted.Subduing Satan: Religion, Recreation, and Manhood in the Rural South, 1865–1920 University of North Carolina Press, 1990
• Pilcher, Jeffrey M. "Tex-Mex, Cal-Mex, New Mex, or Whose Mex? Notes on the Historical Geography of Southwestern Cuisine"Journal of the Southwest, Vol. 43, 2001
• Reed, John Shelton.The Enduring South: Subcultural Persistence in Mass Society (1986) (ISBN 0-8078-4162-5)
• Reed, John Shelton.My Tears Spoiled My Aim: And Other Reflections on Southern Culture (1993) (ISBN 0-8262-0886-X)
• Reed, John Shelton and Dale Volberg Reed,1001 Things Everyone Should Know About the South (1996)
• Smith, Jon.Finding Purple America: The South and the Future of American Cultural Studies (U of Georgia Press, 2013). 208 pp.
  • Online review by Annette Trefzer, Dec 2013
• Volo, James M., and Dorothy Denneen Volo, eds.;The Antebellum Period Greenwood Press, 2004
• Wilson, Charles R.; Ferris, William R. (1989).Encyclopedia of Southern culture.Chapel Hill, North Carolina:University of North Carolina Press.ISBN 0-8078-1823-2.
• Wilson, Charles R., ed. (2006-2020)The New Encyclopedia of Southern culture (Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press), complete in 24 volumes.online
• Wyatt-Brown, B. (2001).The Shaping of Southern Culture: Honor, Grace, and War, 1760s–1890s
• Zelinsky, Wilbur (1973).The cultural geography of the United States. Prentice-Hall.

• Center for the Study of Southern Culture (Mississippi University)
• Collection: "The South (U.S. Southeast)" from theUniversity of Michigan Museum of Art
• Southern Folk Art Collection from theUniversity of Mississippi Museum

• Culture of the Southern United States
• History of the Southern United States
• Cultural regions of the United States

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