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Theculture of Poland (Polish:Kultura Polski orkultura polska) is the product of itsgeography and distinct historical evolution, which is closely connected toan intricate thousand-year history.[1] Poland has aRoman Catholic majority, andreligion plays an important role in the lives of many Polish people.[2] The unique character of Polish culture developed as a result of its geography at the confluence of various European regions.
It is theorised and speculated that ethnic Poles are the combination of descendants ofWest Slavs and people indigenous to the region includingCelts,Balts andGermanic tribes which were graduallyPolonized after Poland'sChristianization by theCatholic Church in the 10th century. Over time Polish culture has been profoundly influenced by its interweaving ties with theGermanic,Baltic,Jewish,Latinate and to a lesser extent;Byzantine andOttoman cultures as well as in continual dialogue with the many other ethnic groups and minorities living in Poland.[3]
The people of Poland have traditionally been seen as hospitable to artists from abroad and eager to follow cultural and artistic trends popular in other countries. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the Polish focus on cultural advancement often took precedence over political and economic activity. These factors have contributed to the versatile nature of Polish art, with all its complex nuances.[3] Nowadays, Poland is a highlydeveloped country that retains its traditions.
Poland has made significant contributions to the art, music, philosophy, mathematics, science, politics and literature of theWestern World. The term which defines an individual's appreciation of Polish culture and customs isPolonophilia.
Cultural history of Poland can be traced back to theMiddle Ages. In its entirety, it can be divided into the following historical, philosophical artistic periods:Culture of medieval Poland (from the late 10th to late 15th century),Renaissance (late 15th to the late 16th century),Baroque (late 16th to the mid-18th century),Enlightenment (second half of the 18th century),Romanticism (from around 1820 until the suppression of the 1863January uprising against the Russian Empire),Positivism (lasting until the turn of the 20th century),Young Poland (between 1890 and 1918),Interbellum (1918–1939),World War II (1939–1945),People's Republic of Poland (until the 1989Autumn of Nations), andModern.[citation needed]
Polish (język polski,polszczyzna) is a language of theLechitic subgroup ofWest Slavic languages (also spelled Lechitic) composed of Polish, Kashubian, Silesian and its archaic variant Slovincian, and the extinct Polabian language. All these languages except Polish are sometimes classified as a Pomeranian subgroup. The West Slavic Languages are a subfamily of theSlavic Languages, a descendant of theIndo-European Languages. In the early Middle Ages, before their speakers had become Germanized, Pomeranian languages and dialects were spoken along the Baltic in an area extending from the lower Vistula River to the lower Oder River." used throughoutPoland (being that country'sofficial language) and byPolish minorities in other countries. Its written standard is thePolish alphabet, which corresponds to theLatin alphabet with several additions. Despite the pressure of non-Polish administrations in Poland, who have often attempted to suppress the Polish language,[citation needed] a rich literature has developed over the centuries. The language is currently the largest, in speakers, of the West Slavic group. It is the second most widely spoken Slavic language, after Russian and ahead of Ukrainian. Polish is mainly spoken inPoland. Poland is one of the most linguisticallyhomogeneous European countries; nearly 97% of Poland's citizens declare Polish as theirmother tongue.
Polish foods includekiełbasa,pierogi (filled with meat, potatoes, cabbage, cheese or holiday fruits),pyzy (meat-filled dough balls),kopytka,gołąbki (meat and rice stuffed cabbage), śledzie (herring),bigos,schabowy,oscypek and much more. Traditionally, food such as soupsflaki,rosół,zupa ogórkowa, zupa grzybowa (mushroom soup),żurek, zupa pomidorowa (tomato soup) have been prepared in large vessels intended for groups, often necessitating the use of devices such asoars in their preparation. Traditionally, hospitality is very important.
In the Middle Ages, as the cities of Poland grew larger in size and the food markets developed, the culinary exchange of ideas progressed & people got acquainted with new dishes and recipes. Some regions became well known for the type of sausage they made and many sausages of today still carry those original names. The peasants acknowledged their honorable judgment, allowing them to remain nourished for longer periods of time.
The first known written mention ofvodka was in 1405 inAkta Grodzkie,[4] the court documents from thePalatinate of Sandomierz in Poland.[4] At the time, the word vodka (wódka), referred to chemical compounds such as medicines and cosmetics' cleansers, while the popular beverage was calledgorzałka (from theOld Polishgorzeć meaningto burn), which is also the source of Ukrainianhorilka (горілка). The wordvodka written inCyrillic appeared first in 1533, in relation to a medicinal drink brought from Poland to Russia by the merchants ofKievan Rus'.[4]
According to a 2009 Ernst & Young report, Poland is Europe's third largest beer producer: Germany with 103 million hectolitres, UK with 49.5 million hl, Poland with 36.9 million hl. Following consecutive growth in the home market, Polish Union of the Brewing Industry Employers (Związek Pracodawców Przemysłu Piwowarskiego), which represents approximately 90% of the Polish beer market, announced during the annual brewing industry conference that consumption of beer in 2008 rose to 94 litres per capita, or 35,624 million hectolitres sold on domestic market. Statistically, a Polish consumer drinks some 92 litres of beer a year, which places it a third behind Germany. Drinking beer as a basic drink was typical during theMiddle Ages. Wine is recently becoming more popular. In fact,Polish mead, a honey wine was a traditional drink dating back also to the Middle Ages.
Soft drinks include "napoje gazowane" (carbonated drinks), "napoje bezalkoholowe" (non-alcoholic drinks) like water, tea, juice, coffee orkompot. Kompot is a non-alcoholic beverage made of boiled fruit, optionally with sugar and spices (clove or cinnamon), served hot or cold. It can be made of one type of fruit or a mixture, including apples, peaches, pears, strawberries or sour cherries. Also, Susz is type ofkompot made with dried fruits, most commonly apples, apricots, figs. Traditionally served onChristmas Eve.
Among holiday meals, there is a traditional Christmas Eve supper calledWigilia. Another special occasion isFat Thursday ("Tłusty Czwartek"), a Catholic feast celebrated on the last Thursday before the Lent. Traditionally it is a day when people eat large amounts of sweets and cakes that are afterwards forbidden until Easter day (see also: the Polish traditionalEaster Breakfast).
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Polish cities and towns reflect the whole spectrum of European styles. Poland's (along with Hungary's) eastern frontiers used to mark the outermost boundary ofWestern architecture on the continent, with strong influences derived from Italy, Germany and theLow Countries.[citation needed]
History has not been good to Poland's architectural monuments. However, ancient structures have survived: castles, churches, and stately buildings, often unique in the regional or European context. Some of them have been painstakingly restored, likeWawel Castle, or completely reconstructed after being destroyed in theSecond World War, including theOld Town andRoyal Castle in Warsaw, as well as the Old Towns ofGdańsk andWrocław.[citation needed]
The architecture ofGdańsk is mostly Hanseatic, common in cities along theBaltic Sea and in the northern part of Central Europe. The architectural style ofWrocław is representative of German architecture, since it was a part of the German states for centuries. The center ofKazimierz Dolny on theVistula is a good example of a well-preserved medieval town, also local variation of Renaissance architecture has been developed calledLublin Renaissance it has preserved inLublin asLublin Old Town andOld City of Zamość inZamość. Poland's ancient capital,Kraków, ranks among the best-preservedGothic andRenaissance urban complexes in Europe. Meanwhile, the legacy of theKresy Marchlands of Poland's eastern regions with Wilno and Lwów (now Vilnius and Lviv) as two major centres for the arts played a special role in these developments withRoman-Catholic church architecture deserving special attention.[3] InVilnius (Lithuania) there are about fortybaroque andRenaissance churches. InLviv (Ukraine) there areGothic,Renaissance, andbaroque urban churches with influences of the orthodox and Armenian church.
One of the best-preserved examples of theModernist architecture in Europe is located inKatowice,Upper Silesia, designed and built in the 1930s. Interesting buildings were also constructed during the Communist era in the style ofSocialist Realism; some remarkable examples of modern architecture were erected more recently.
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Polish art has always reflected European trends while maintaining its unique character. TheKraków school of Historicist painting developed byJan Matejko produced monumental portrayals of customs and significant events in Polish history.Stanisław Witkiewicz was an ardent supporter ofRealism in Polish art, its main representative beingJozef Chełmoński.
The Młoda Polska (Young Poland) movement witnessed the birth of modern Polish art and engaged in a great deal of formal experimentation led byJacek Malczewski (Symbolism),Stanisław Wyspiański,Józef Mehoffer, and a group of PolishImpressionists. Artists of the 20th century Avant-garde represented various schools and trends. The art ofTadeusz Makowski was influenced byCubism; whileWładysław Strzemiński as well asHenryk Stażewski worked within the Constructivist idiom, andTamara de Lempicka in theArt Deco style. Distinguished contemporary artists includeMonika Sosnowska,Roman Opałka,Leon Tarasewicz,Jerzy Nowosielski,Mirosław Bałka, andKatarzyna Kozyra andAlicja Kwade in the younger generation. The most celebrated Polish sculptors includeXawery Dunikowski,Katarzyna Kobro,Alina Szapocznikow andMagdalena Abakanowicz. Since the inter-war years, Polish art and documentary photography has enjoyed worldwide recognition. In the 1960s, thePolish Poster School was formed, withHenryk Tomaszewski andWaldemar Świerzy at its head.[3]
Dance in Poland consists of a diverse array of traditional and contemporary forms of dance. Traditional dances are often an important part of cultural celebrations, and these dances vary across regions of the country. The national dances of Poland arekrakowiak (cracovienne),oberek,polonaise,kujawiak andmazur (mazurka).[citation needed]
Artists fromPoland, including famous composers likeKarol Lipiński,Frédéric Chopin orWitold Lutosławski and traditional, regionalisedfolk musicians, create a lively and diverse music scene, which even recognizes its ownmusic genres, such assung poetry. Today in Poland, one may findtrance,techno,house music, andheavy metal.
The origin of Polish music can be traced as far back as the 13th century, from which manuscripts have been found inStary Sącz, containingpolyphonic compositions related to the ParisianNotre Dame School. Other early compositions, such as the melody ofBogurodzica, may also date back to this period. The first known notable composer, however,Mikołaj z Radomia, lived in the 15th century. The melody ofBóg się rodzi by an unknown composer was a coronation polonaise for Polish kings.[citation needed]
During the 16th century, mostly two musical groups – both based inKraków and belonging to the King and Archbishop of Wawel – led the rapid innovation of Polish music. Composers writing during this period includeWacław z Szamotuł,Mikołaj Zieleński, andMikołaj Gomółka.Diomedes Cato, a native-born Italian who lived in Kraków from about the age of five, became one of the most famous lutenists at the court of Sigismund III. He imported some of the musical styles from southern Europe and blended them with native folk music.[6]
Among the best classical modern composers are Polish musiciansGrażyna Bacewicz,Witold Lutosławski,Krzysztof Penderecki andHenryk Górecki.[citation needed]
The Polish world renown virtuosos of classical music of all time include composersKarol Lipiński,Artur Rubinstein,Ignacy Paderewski,Mieczysław Horszowski,Grażyna Bacewicz,Wanda Wilkomirska andKrystian Zimerman.[citation needed]
Jazz musicianKrzysztof Komeda was known after WWII especially for his film soundtracks, including film directed byRoman Polański, but also for his 1966 albumAstigmatic.[citation needed]
Іn thе Роlіѕh muѕіс іnduѕtrу Rар ѕtаnd оut аѕ thе mоѕt рrоmіnеnt аnd wіdеlу rесоgnіzеd gеnrе. Роlіѕh rарреrѕ аrе сеlеbrаtеd fоr thеіr tаlеntѕ аnd асhіеvеmеntѕ.[7] Оvеr thе уеаrѕ, mоѕt Роlіѕh rарреrѕ ѕtuсk tо thе соntеmроrаrу rар muѕіс, but іn thе 21ѕt сеnturу ѕеvеrаl nеw‐gеnеrаtіоn аrtіѕtѕ bеgаn tо dіvеrѕіfу іntо оthеr gеnrеѕ іnсludіng Тrар. Νоtаblе Роlіѕh rарреrѕ іnсludеMagik,Peja andPopek. In tеrmѕ оf Rар, thеrе аrе mаnу fеmаlе аrtіѕts, but nоnе have gаіnеd mаіnѕtrеаm publicity. Polish contemporary music also consists of disco polo, which is identified as ‘our own,’ local, and Polish[8] with Zenon Martyniuk, the king ofthe disco polo and co-founder of the legendary Akcent band, achieving massive success through his hit “Przez Twe oczy zielone”, the second most popular Polish song on YouTube with over 100 million views.[9]
Poland has one of the strongest and best-respectedelectronic dance music (EDM) scenes in Europe. One of the biggest record labels of EDM in Poland is Empire Records. The death metal bandVader is considered the most successful Polish Metal act and have gained commercial and critical praise internationally. Their career spans more than three decades with many international tours. They are often seen as a huge inspiration on modern Death Metal.Behemoth andDecapitated have found significant success inside and outside Poland. Both have toured extensively across Europe, America and, in the case of Decapitated, have recently toured Australia and New Zealand. RecentlyIndukti,Hate,Trauma,Crionics,Lost Soul andLux Occulta have started to become well known outside of Poland. There is also an active grindcore, and a vigorous black metals scenes as well, the later led byGraveland,Darzamat, Kataxu, Infernal War andVesania.[citation needed]
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Since the arrival of Christianity and the subsequent access to Western European civilization, Poles developed a significant literary production inLatin. Conspicuous authors of the Middle Ages are among othersGallus Anonymus,Wincenty Kadłubek andJan Długosz, an author of the monumental work on the history of Poland. With the arrival of the Renaissance, Poles came under the influence of the artistic patterns of the humanistic style, actively participating in the European issues of that time with their Latin works.[citation needed]
The origins ofPolish literature written in Polish go back beyond the 14th century. In the 16th century the poetic works ofJan Kochanowski established him as a leading representative of European Renaissance literature.Baroque andNeo-Classicist belle letters made a significant contribution to the cementing of Poland's peoples of many cultural backgrounds. The early 19th century novel "Manuscrit trouvé à Saragosse" by CountJan Potocki, which survived in its Polish translation after the loss of the original in French, became a world classic.Wojciech Has's film based on it, a favourite ofLuis Buñuel, later became a cult film on university campuses. Poland's great Romantic literature flourished in the 19th century when the country had lost its independence. The poetsAdam Mickiewicz,Juliusz Słowacki andZygmunt Krasiński, the "Three Bards", became the spiritual leaders of a nation deprived of its sovereignty, and prophesied its revival. The novelistHenryk Sienkiewicz, who won the Nobel Prize in 1905, eulogised the historical tradition. It is difficult to grasp fully the detailed tradition of PolishRomanticism and its consequences for Polish literature without a thorough knowledge ofPolish history.[3]
In the early 20th century, many outstanding Polish literary works emerged from the new cultural exchange and Avant-Garde experimentation. The legacy of theKresy marshlands of Poland's eastern regions withWilno andLwów (now Vilnius and Lviv) as two major centres for the arts, played a special role in these developments. This was also a region in whichJewish tradition and the mystic movement ofHasidism thrived. The Kresy were a cultural trysting-place for numerous ethnic and national groups whose achievements were inspiring each other. The works ofBruno Schulz,Bolesław Leśmian, and Józef Czechowicz were written there. In the south of Poland,Zakopane was the birthplace of the avant-garde works ofStanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz (Witkacy). And, last but not least,Władysław Reymont was awarded the 1924 Nobel prize in literature for his novel Chłopi (The Peasants).
After the Second World War, many Polish writers found themselves in exile, with many of them clustered around the Paris-based "Kultura" publishing venture run byJerzy Giedroyc. The group of emigre writers includedWitold Gombrowicz,Gustaw Herling-Grudziński,Czesław Miłosz, andSławomir Mrożek.
Zbigniew Herbert,Tadeusz Różewicz,Czesław Miłosz, andWisława Szymborska are among the most outstanding 20th century Polish poets, includingnovelists and playwrightsWitold Gombrowicz,Sławomir Mrożek, andStanisław Lem (science fiction).The long list includesHanna Krall whose work focuses mainly on the war-time Jewish experience, andRyszard Kapuściński with books translated into many languages.
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| Henryk Sienkiewicz (1846–1916) | Władysław Reymont (1865–1925) | Isaac Bashevis Singer (1902–1991) | Czesław Miłosz (1911–2004) | Wisława Szymborska (1923–2012) | Olga Tokarczuk (1962–) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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Polish philosophy drew upon the broader currents of European philosophy, and in turn contributed to their growth. Among the most momentous Polish contributions were made, in the 13th century, by theScholastic philosopher and scientistVitello, byPaweł Włodkowic—in early 15th and, by theRenaissancepolymathNicolaus Copernicus in the 16th century.[10]
Subsequently, thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth partook in the intellectual ferment of theEnlightenment, which for the multi-ethnic Commonwealth ended not long after thepartitions and political annihilation that would last for the next 123 years, until the collapse of the three partitioning empires inWorld War I.
The period ofMessianism, between theNovember 1830 andJanuary 1863 Uprisings, reflected EuropeanRomantic andIdealist trends, as well as a Polish yearning for politicalresurrection. It was a period ofmaximalistmetaphysical systems.
The collapse of theJanuary 1863 Uprising prompted an agonising reappraisal of Poland's situation. Poles gave up their earlier practice of "measuring their goals by their aspirations" (Adam Mickiewicz) and buckled down to hard work and study. "[A] Positivist," wrote the novelistBolesław Prus's friend,Julian Ochorowicz, was "anyone who bases assertions on verifiable evidence; who does not express himself categorically about doubtful things, and does not speak at all about those that are inaccessible."[11]
The 20th century brought a new quickening to Polish philosophy. There was growing interest in western philosophical currents. Rigorously trained Polish philosophers made substantial contributions to specialized fields—topsychology, thehistory of philosophy, thetheory of knowledge, and especiallymathematical logic.[12]Jan Łukasiewicz gained world fame with his concept ofmany-valued logic and his "Polish notation."[13]Alfred Tarski's work intruth theory won him world renown.[14]
AfterWorld War II, for over four decades, world-class Polish philosophers andhistorians of philosophy such asWładysław Tatarkiewicz continued their work, often in the face of adversities occasioned by the dominance of a politically enforced official philosophy. ThephenomenologistRoman Ingarden did influential work inesthetics and in aHusserl-stylemetaphysics; his studentKarol Wojtyła owned a unique influence on the world stage as PopeJohn Paul II.
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