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Theculture of Kerala has developed over the past millennia, with influences from other parts of India and abroad.[1][2] It is defined by its antiquity and the organic continuity sustained by theMalayali people.[3] Modern Kerala society took shape owing to migrations from different parts of India and abroad throughoutClassical Antiquity.[2][4][5]
Kerala traces its non-prehistoric cultural genesis to its membership (around the AD 3rd century) in a vaguely defined historical region known asThamizhagom – a land defined by a commonTamil culture and encompassing the Chera, Chola, and Pandya kingdoms. At that time, the music, dance, language (firstDravida Bhasha – "Dravidian language (possibly Proto-Tamil)"[6] – then Tamil), andSangam (a vast corpus of Tamil literature composed between 1,500–2,000 years ago) found in Kerala were all similar to that found in the rest ofThamizhagom (today's Tamil Nadu). The culture of Kerala evolved through theSanskritization of Dravidian ethos,revivalism of religious movements andreform movements againstcaste discrimination.[7][8][9]
Strong communitarian values,wit, and an appreciation for social progressivism are commonly associated withMalayali culture.[10][11][12][13][14]
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Native traditions of classicalperforming arts includekoodiyattom, a form ofSanskritdrama ortheatre and aUNESCO-designated Human Heritage Art. Kathakali (fromkaterumbu ("story") andkali ("performance")) is a 500-year-old form ofdance-drama that interprets ancient epics; a popularized offshoot ofkathakali isKerala natanam (developed in the 20th century bydancerGuru Gopinath). Meanwhile,koothu is a more light-hearted performance mode, akin to modernstand-up comedy; an ancient art originally confined to temple sanctuaries, it was later popularized byMani Madhava Chakyar. Other Keralite performing arts includemohiniyaattam ("dance of the enchantress"), which is a type of gracefulchoreographed dance performed by women and accompanied by musical vocalizations.Thullal,Thirayattam,padayani, andtheyyam are other important Keralite performing arts.Thirayattam is one of the most outstanding Ethnic art ofKerala. This vibrant ritualistic annual performing art form enacted in courtyards of "Kaavukal"(sacred groves) and village shrine.[15]
Kerala also has several tribal and folk art forms. For example,Kummattikali, the colorful mask-dance of South Malabar, is performed during the festival of Onam. TheKannyar Kali dances (also known as Desathukali) are fast-moving, militant dances attuned to rhythmic devotional folk songs and asuravadyas. Other performance genres have ties to Christianity orIslam. These includeoppana, which is widely popular among Keralite Muslims and is native to Malabar.Oppana incorporates group dance accompanied by the beat of rhythmic hand-clapping andVishal vocalizations.[citation needed]Margam Kali is a round group dance of Kerala practiced bySaint Thomas Christians.[16]
However, many of these native art forms largely play to tourists or at youth festivals and are not as popular among ordinary Keralites. Thus, more contemporary forms – including those heavily based on the use of often risqué andpolitically incorrectmimicry andparody – have gained considerable mass appeal in recent years.[citation needed] Indeed, contemporary artists often use such modes to mock socioeconomic elites. In recent decades,Malayalam cinema, yet another mode of widely popular artistic expression, have provided a distinct and indigenous Keralite alternative to bothBollywood andHollywood.[citation needed]
Theragas andtalas of lyrical and devotionalCarnatic music – another native product of South India – dominates Keralite classical musical genres.Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma, a 19th-century king of Travancore and patron and composer of music, was instrumental in popularising carnatic music in early Kerala.[17][18] Additionally, Kerala has its own native music system,sopanam, which is a lugubrious and step-by-step rendition of raga-based songs. It isSopanam, for example, that provides the background music used inKathakali. The widertraditional music of Kerala also includesmelam (including thepaandi andpanchari variants), as style ofpercussive music performed attemple-centered festivals using an instrument known as thechenda. Up to 150 musicians may comprise the ensembles staging a given performance; each performance, in turn, may last up to four hours.Panchavadyam is a differing type of percussion ensemble consisting of five types of percussion instruments; these can be utilised by up to one hundred artists in certain major festivals. In addition to these, percussive music is also associated with various uniquely Keralite folk arts forms. Lastly, thepopular music of Kerala, as in the rest of India, is dominated by thefilmi music ofIndian cinema.The most remembered name in Kerala music culture is of Great Indian musician SriK. J. Yesudas.[citation needed]
TheSangam literature can be considered as the ancient predecessor ofMalayalam.[19]Malayalam literature is ancient in origin, and includes such figures as the 14th centuryNiranam poets (Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar and Rama Panikkar), whose works mark the dawn of both modern Malayalam language and indigenous Keralite poetry. Some linguists claim that an inscription found fromEdakkal Caves,Wayanad, which belongs to 3rd century CE (approximately 1,800 years old), is the oldest available inscription in Malayalam, as they contain two modern Malayalam words,Ee (This) andPazhama (Old), those are not found even in theOldest form of Tamil.Sangam works can be considered as the ancient predecessor of Malayalam.[19] The origin ofMalayalam calendar dates back to year 825 CE.[20][21][22] It is generally agreed that theQuilon Syrian copper plates of 849/850 CE is the available oldest inscription written inOld Malayalam. For the first 600 years ofMalayalam calendar, the literature mainly consisted of the oralBallads such asVadakkan Pattukal (Northern Songs) inNorth Malabar andThekkan Pattukal (Southern songs) inSouthern Travancore.[19] The earliest known literary works in Malayalam areRamacharitam andThirunizhalmala, twoepic poems written inOld Malayalam.Malayalam literature has been presented with 6Jnanapith awards, the second-most for any Dravidian language and the third-highest for any Indian language.[23][24]
Designated a "Classical Language in India" in 2013,[25] it developed into the current form mainly by the influence of the poetsCherusseri Namboothiri (Born nearKannur),[26][27]Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan (Born nearTirur),[27] andPoonthanam Nambudiri (Born nearPerinthalmanna),[27][28] in the 15th and the 16th centuries of Common Era.[27][29]Kunchan Nambiar, aPalakkad-based poet also significantly influenced the growth of modern Malayalam literature in its early form, through a new literary branch calledThullal.[27] The prose literature, criticism, andMalayalam journalism, began following the latter half of 18th century CE. The first travelogue in any Indian language is the MalayalamVarthamanappusthakam, written byParemmakkal Thoma Kathanar in 1785.[30][31]
TheBharathappuzha river, also known asRiver Ponnani, and its tributaries, have played a major role in the development of modern Malayalam Literature.[27][vague] The words used in many of theArabi Malayalam works those date back to 16th-17th centuries ofCommon Era are also very closer to the modern Malayalam language.[27][32]Unnayi Variyar of 17th-18th centuries, based atThrissur, played a major role in the development ofAttakkatha Literature.[27] The words used in many of theArabi Malayalam works those date back to 16th-17th centuries ofCommon Era are also very closer to the modern Malayalam language.[27][32] TheTriumvirate of poets (Kavithrayam:Kumaran Asan,Vallathol Narayana Menon andUlloor S. Parameswara Iyer) are recognized for moving keralian poetry away from archaicsophistry andmetaphysics and towards a morelyrical mode. The modern Malayalam grammar is based on the bookKerala Panineeyam written byA. R. Raja Raja Varma in late 19th century CE.[33]
In the second half of the 20th century,Jnanpith winning poets and writers likeG. Sankara Kurup,S. K. Pottekkatt,Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai,M. T. Vasudevan Nair,O. N. V. Kurup, andAkkitham Achuthan Namboothiri, had made valuable contributions to the modern Malayalam literature.[34][35][36][37][38] Later, writers likeO. V. Vijayan,Kamaladas,M. Mukundan,Arundhati Roy, andVaikom Muhammed Basheer, have gained international recognition.[39][40][41][42] Poets likeChangampuzha,Uroob,Edasseri Govindan Nair,M. T. Vasudevan Nair,Kamala Surayya,Pallathu Raman, andEdappally Raghavan Pillai also contributed to bringMalayalam poetry to the common man. Later, such contemporary writers asBooker Prize winnerArundhati Roy (whose 1996 semi-autobiographical bestsellerThe God of Small Things is set in theKottayam town of Ayemenem) have garnered international recognition. From 1970 to early 1990s, a lot of Malayalam Novelists and story writers contributed to the Literature of Kerala. The contributions fromThakazhi Sivashankara Pillai,Vaikom Muhammed BasheerP. Kesavadev,Uroob,OV Vijayan,T Padmanabhan,Sethu,Perumbadavam Sreedharan,Kovilan,M. Mukundan,Kakkanadan,Anand andPaul Zacharia, have been remarkable. Significant contributions from poets and songwriters such asVayalar Rama Varma,P. Bhaskaran andONV Kurup have influenced contemporary literature. Critics such asKuttikrishna Marar andM.P. Paul till the sixties and later,M Krishnan Nair,S. Gupthan Nair,M. K. Sanu,Sukumar Azhikode,K.P. Appan,Narendra Prasad andM. Leelavathy have added value by providing critical analysis of the books written during the recent past. The writers likeKavalam Narayana Panicker have contributed much to Malayalam drama.[19] ContemporaryMalayalam literature deals with social, political, and economic life context. The tendency of the modern poetry is often towardspolitical radicalism.[43]
Arabi Malayalam (also called Mappila Malayalam[44][45] and Moplah Malayalam) was the traditionalDravidian language[46] of theMappila Muslim community inMalabar Coast. The poets likeMoyinkutty Vaidyar andPulikkottil Hyder have made notable contributions to theMappila songs, which is a genre of theArabi Malayalam literature.[47][48] TheArabi Malayalam script, otherwise known as thePonnani script,[49][50][51] is a writing system – a variant form of theArabic script with specialorthographic features – which was developed during the early medieval period and used to writeArabi Malayalam until the early 20th century CE.[52][53] Though the script originated and developed inKerala, today it is predominantly used inMalaysia andSingapore by the migrantMuslim community.[54][55]
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Kerala folklore is influenced by agricultural patterns and work in the region. Sowing, planting ofnharu (seedling), clearing out the weeds, harvests etc. are the different stages of agriculture which have their typical rituals. Numerous songs and performing arts accompany these stages, such asNjattupattu, which are songs sung during the seedling time. Kanyar Kali,Padayani,Mudiyettu,Thirayattam,Malavayiyattam,Theyyam, Kothamooriyattam, Nira, Puthari, etc. are some of the ritual folklore of Kerala. Much of Kerala folk culture, including festival dates, was codified under the rule ofKolathiris, the Kings ofKolathunadu.[citation needed]
The folk arts of Kerala can be broadly classified under two heads:[56] ritualistic and non-ritualistic. Ritualistic folk arts can be further divided into two: devotional and magical.Devotional folk arts, such astheyyam,thirayattam, poothamthira, kanyarkali, andkummatti, are performed to propitiate a particular God or Goddess. Forms like panappattu and thottampattu are composed in the form of songs. In kolkali,margamkali,daffumuttukkali, etc., the ritualistic element is not very strong. Magical folk arts seek to win general prosperity for a community or exorcise evil spirits or to beget children.Gandharvas andnagas are worshipped in order to win these favours. The magical folk arts include pambinthullal, pooppadathullal, kolamthullal, malayankettu, etc.[citation needed]
The majority of Keralites belong to either one of the political alliances, namely theUnited Democratic Front (UDF) orLeft Democratic Front (LDF). Regional parties includeIndian Union Muslim League (IUML), various factions ofKerala Congress, various factions ofRevolutionary Socialist Party, and a host of smaller parties. Religious leaders have high influence in Kerala political movements. Many Keralites nostalgically recall their younger days which they spent debating politics in "chaya kadas" (Local Tea Vending Places).[citation needed]
Kerala has its own indigenous form ofmartial art,Kalarippayattu, derived from the wordskalari ("place", "threshing floor", or "battlefield") andpayattu ("exercise" or "practice"). Influenced by both Kerala's Brahminical past and Ayurvedic medicine,kalaripayattu is attributed by oral tradition to Parasurama. After some two centuries of suppression by British colonial authorities, it is now experiencing strong comeback among Keralites while also steadily gaining worldwide attention. Other popular ritual arts includetheyyam andpoorakkali, which originate from northern Malabar, the northernmost part of Kerala.[citation needed] Kolkkali is a folk art performed inMalabar region ofKerala, India. The dance performers move in a circle, striking small sticks and keeping rhythm with special steps.[58]
In modern times, traditional ritual and martial arts been largely supplanted by more popular sports such ascricket,kabaddi,soccer,badminton, and others. TheKochi Tuskers Kerala, who play in the Indian Premier League (IPL), are from Kerala. Kerala is currently the home of the football clubsKerala Blasters andGokulam Kerala FC.Viva Kerala andFC Kochin were the other two major football clubs from the state in the past.[citation needed]
TheMalayalam calendar, Kerala's indigenous ancient solar calendar, is used primarily for timing agricultural and religious activities.[citation needed]
Elephants have been an integral part of the culture of the state. Almost all of the local festivals in Kerala include at least one richly caparisoned elephant. Kerala is home to the largest domesticated population of elephants in India—about 700Indian elephants, owned by temples as well as individuals.[59] These elephants are mainly employed for the processions and displays associated with festivals celebrated all around the state. More than 10,000 festivals are celebrated in the state annually and some animal lovers have sometimes raised concerns regarding the overwork of domesticated elephants during them.[60] In Malayalam literature, elephants are referred to as the "sons of thesahya".[61] The elephant is the state animal of Kerala and is featured on the emblem of theGovernment of Kerala.[62]
Sarpa Kavu (meaningSacred Grove of the Serpent) is a typically small traditional grove of trees seen in theKerala state ofSouth India. These pristine groves usually have representations of severalNaga Devatas (serpent gods), which were worshipped by the joint families ortaravads. This was part ofNagaradhana (snake worship) which was prevalent amongKeralites during past centuries. It had been practised by nearly every Hindu community in Kerala ranging fromNambudiri Brahmins to tribal communities.[citation needed]
(Malayalam: ഓണം) Onam is a harvest festival celebrated by the people of Kerala. It is the state festival of Kerala, with state holidays on 4 days starting from Onam Eve (Uthradom) to the 4th Onam Day. Onam Festival falls during theMalayalam month of Chingam (Aug – Sep) and marks the commemoration ofVamana, an avatar ofVishnu, and the subsequent homecoming of KingMahabali, who Malayalees consider to be a just and fair king who was exiled to the underworld. Some cultural elements in Onam are Vallam Kali, Pulikkali, Pookkalam, Onatthappan, Thumbi Thullal,Onavillu, Kazhchakkula, Onapottan, and Atthachamayame.[citation needed]
During the festival, the 'Onam Sadhya' (Onam Feast) is held, with dishes served on banana leaves, and celebrants don 'Onam Kodi' (new dress for the special occasion).[citation needed]
Kerala has a large number of temples. The temples celebrate annual festivals unique to the region and sometimes unique to each temple. Each temple describes each interesting history behind its creation. In the Malabar, distinct art form calledTheyyam attract tourists, and mini carnivals are also held along with temple festivals.Thrissur pooram is one of the most popular temple festivals.[citation needed]
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