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Theculture of Indonesia (Indonesian:Budaya Indonesia) has been shaped by the interplay of indigenous customs and diverse foreign influences. As the world's largest archipelagic country, it is home to over600 ethnic groups, includingAustronesian andMelanesian cultures, contributing to its rich traditions,languages, and customs.Indonesia is a melting pot of diversity. Positioned along ancient trade routes between theFar East,South Asia, and theMiddle East, the country has absorbed cultural practices influenced byHinduism,Buddhism,Confucianism,Islam, andChristianity. These influences have created a complex cultural tapestry that often differs from the original indigenous cultures.
Examples of the fusion of Islam with Hinduism includeJavaneseAbangan belief. Balinese dances have stories about ancient Buddhist and Hindukingdoms, whileIslamic art forms and architecture are present inSumatra, especially in theMinangkabau andAceh regions. Traditional art, music and sport are combined in a martial art form calledPencak Silat.
TheWestern world has influenced Indonesia in science, technology and modern entertainment such as television shows, film and music, as well as political system and issues.India has notably influenced Indonesian songs and movies. A popular type of song is the Indian-rhythmicaldangdut, which is often mixed withArabic,Javanese andMalay folk music.
Despite the influences of foreign culture, some remote Indonesian regions still preserve uniquely indigenous culture. Indigenousethnic groupsBatak,Nias,Mentawai,Asmat,Dani,Sumba,Dayak,Toraja and many others are still practising their ethnic rituals, customs and wearingtraditional clothes.[1]
Indonesia currently holdssixteen items of UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage, includingwayang puppet theatre,kris,batik, education and training in Indonesian batik,angklung,saman dance,noken, three genres of traditionalBalinese dance,pinisi ship,pencak silat,gamelan,jamu, andreog. Additionally,pantun,kebaya, andkolintang were inscribed through joint nominations.[2]
Gamelan is a traditional Indonesian musical ensemble, primarily associated withJava andBali. It consists of various percussion instruments, includingmetallophones such asgambang andbonang, as well asgongs likekenong andgong ageng.[3] Gamelan plays a vital role in cultural and religious ceremonies, shadow puppet performances (wayang), andtraditional dance. Its layered melodies and interlocking rhythms create a distinctive sound that has influenced both Indonesian and international music.[4] Beyond its artistic value, gamelan is deeply embedded in local traditions and community gatherings. Recognized byUNESCO in 2021 as aMasterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity, gamelan remains an essential part of Indonesia's musical heritage.[5]
InWest Sumatra, theMinangkabau people playtalempong, a set of small knobbed gongs used in dance and ceremonies. Another key instrument is thesaluang, a four-holed bamboo flute played with circular breathing, traditionally accompanying folk tales.[6][7] InNorth Sumatra, theBatak people's music centers aroundgondang, a percussion ensemble of drums and gongs used in rituals. A notable variation isgordang sambilan, a set of nine large drums historically linked to royal ceremonies. Thehasapi, a two-stringed wooden lute, is often played alongside singing in traditional Batak music.[8] InSulawesi, the Toraja people use pa’pompang, a bamboo instrument resembling a large flute ensemble with deep tones. TheBugis andMakassar people play the kacaping, a small plucked string instrument used in solo performances or to accompany storytelling. InKalimantan, theDayak people are known for thesape, a long-necked lute with intricate carvings, originally played in healing rituals and warrior dances but now popular in modern Dayak music. They also use gongs and other percussion instruments in communal events.[9][10] InPapua, traditional music prominently features thetifa, a hand drum made from hollowed wood and animal skin, played in rhythmic patterns for dances and rituals. Bamboo wind instruments, such as flutes and panpipes, are also commonly used.
Theangklung, a traditional musical instrument fromWest Java made from bamboo, has received international recognition from UNESCO as part of the intangible cultural heritage.[11] Another unique instrument is theSasando fromEast Nusa Tenggara, a harp-like instrument made from a splitLontar palm leaf, known for its soft, flowing melodies.[12]
Kroncong is a traditional Indonesian music genre featuring guitars,ukuleles, and a distinctive rhythmic style. Introduced by Portuguese traders in the 15th century, it developed into regional styles such as Keroncong Tugu inNorth Jakarta andMaluku, which retain strong Portuguese influences. Another well-known variation is Keroncong Kemayoran from Jakarta. A modern adaptation, Pop Kroncong, blends traditional kroncong with contemporary element.[12]
Other notable traditional music genres in Indonesia includeTanjidor fromBetawi culture inJakarta featuring a brass and woodwind ensemble,[13] and Jaipongan from West Java, which blends Sundanese music with dance.[14] In the 1960s, Indonesia's music scene evolved with modern kroncong and pop influences. On June 29, 1965, the bandKoes Plus was imprisoned inGlodok,West Jakarta, for playing Western-style music, which was banned underSukarno’s government. After his resignation, the restrictions were lifted, and Koes Plus became pioneers of Indonesian pop music.[15]
Dangdut emerged in the 1970s, blending Javanese, Malay, Indian, and Arabic musical influences. Originating in Java, it quickly gained nationwide popularity with its distinctive drum beats and flute melodies. The genre later spread to neighboring countries such as Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei and has gained international recognition through diaspora communities and collaborations with global musicians.[16][17]
Indonesian dance reflects the rich diversity of culture from the many ethnic groups that compose the nation of Indonesia. The dances showcaseAustronesian roots,Melanesian tribal dance forms, and influences from foreign countries such asIndian subcontinent,Mainland China, and theMiddle East, as well asEuropean styles introduced during colonization. With over 3,000 distinct dances, each ethnic group contributes its own unique styles and traditions. Indonesian dances can be categorized into three historical eras: the Prehistoric Era, the Hindu-Buddhist Era, and the Islamic Era, and they fall into two main genres: court dance and folk dance.[18]
InWest Sumatra,Tari Piring (plate dance) is performed with dancers balancing plates while executing fast, precise movements.[19] InAceh, theSaman dance is known for its rapid, synchronized hand and body motions and was recognized by UNESCO in 2011 as anIntangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding.[20] TheBatak people'sTor-tor dance involves rhythmic footwork and deliberate gestures, often performed in rituals and celebrations.[21][22] InRiau, the Melayu dance is characterized by fluid, elegant gestures, commonly seen in formal ceremonies.Zapin, performed inJambi andBangka Belitung, blends Arabic and local influences with lively footwork. InSouth Sumatra,Gending Sriwijaya reflects the legacy of theSrivijaya Empire, featuring graceful choreography set to rhythmic melodies.[23]
InJava,Bedhaya andSerimpi are performed in the royal courts ofYogyakarta andSurakarta. Bedhaya, a sacred dance, is characterized by slow, deliberate movements that reflect spiritual harmony. Serimpi, known for its elegance, portraysJavanese mythology and royal traditions through refined gestures and synchronized patterns.[24][25][26]
TheTopeng (mask dance) is a traditional Javanese performance where dancers wear masks to portray characters from Javanese folklore, history, and mythology. Accompanied bygamelan, this dance blends drama and theatrical elements.Gambyong, a traditional dance from Surakarta, is performed in welcoming ceremonies and festive events, characterized by smooth, flowing movements.[27][28]Kuda Lumping (Kepang Jaran) depicts riders on woven bamboo horses, often incorporating trance performances.[29]Reog, fromPonorogo, features the massive "Singa Barong" (Javanese lion) mask, weighing over 30 kg, held by a performer using their teeth, alongside bold choreography and powerful percussion.[30][31]
InBali, traditional dance is deeply woven into religious and cultural life, categorized into Wali (sacred), Bebali (semi-sacred), and Balih-balihan (entertainment).UNESCO recognized these dance traditions as Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2015.[32]Legong is distinguished by its intricate finger movements and precise footwork, often used to depict mythical tales.[33] TheBarong dance, a dramatic portrayal of the struggle betweenBarong (good) andRangda (evil), features elaborate costumes and dynamic movements.[34]
TheKecak dance, or the “Ramayana Monkey Chant,” is one of Bali's most iconic performances. This dynamic dance-drama features a large group of men chanting “cak” in unison, creating a mesmerizing rhythm that drives the storytelling. Inspired by scenes from the Hindu epicRamayana, Kecak is not just a dance but a powerful theatrical experience, often performed against the dramatic backdrop of Bali's temples at sunset.[35]
TheDayak people ofKalimantan perform theHudoq dance, a masked ritual meant to invite spirits and ensure a good harvest.[36] TheKancet Papatai dance reenacts scenes of ancient Dayak warriors, featuring energetic movements and traditional weapons.[37] The Banjar people are known forBaksa kembang, a graceful dance performed at weddings and ceremonies, incorporating delicate hand movements and floral decorations as a symbol of beauty and prosperity.[38][39]
InSulawesi, Dero is a circle dance of the Kaili people inCentral Sulawesi, performed during celebrations. InSouth Sulawesi, theBugis Pakarena is a traditional dance with slow, graceful movements, performed by female dancers in elaborate costumes to the accompaniment of drum and flute music.Paraga fromMakassar involves skillful footwork with a rattan ball, similar tosepak raga.Bosara, a traditionalBugis-Makassar dance, is performed by women with elegant hand gestures around a bosara (decorative tray), symbolizing hospitality and respect, often at welcoming ceremonies.
In theMaluku Islands,Cakalele is a war dance performed with shields and swords.[40] Poco-Poco, a line dance from Ambon, became popular across Indonesia and internationally, especially in Southeast Asia. It is often performed in group exercises, social gatherings, and military drills. The dance gained attention in Malaysia but was banned in 2011 by some religious authorities due to perceived Christian influences. Despite this, Poco-Poco remains a beloved dance for recreation and fitness.[41] InNorth Maluku, the Gala dance from theSula Islands is traditionally performed to welcome guests and celebrate harvests or other festivities, with male and female dancers paired together.[42]
InPapua, Sajojo is a popular group dance with energetic steps, often performed at festivals. Yospan is a social dance featuring dynamic footwork and leaps, commonly used to welcome guests. TheWar Dance of theDani andYali tribes involves stomping, spear formations, and rhythmic drumming. Tumbu Tanah, a highland dance, is performed by stomping the ground in unison to create a steady beat.
Wayang is a traditionalshadow puppet theater from theJavanese,Sundanese, andBalinese cultures, depicting stories from theRamayana,Mahabharata, and local folklore.Wayang kulit, the most well-known form, uses intricately carved leather puppets mounted on bamboo sticks, manipulated behind a lit screen to cast moving shadows. The performances, led by adalang (puppet master), serve as both entertainment and a medium for conveying moral and philosophical teachings. Recognized byUNESCO as aMasterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity, wayang remains an integral part of Indonesian cultural heritage.[43][44]
Wayang wong, or "human wayang", is a form of Javanese theatre that adapts wayang stories into live dance dramas performed by actors. This tradition incorporates elaborate costumes, stylized movements, and traditional music to portray mythological tales and convey moral teachings. Performances are accompanied by agamelan orchestra, which enhances the storytelling through rhythmic melodies. The dalang (puppet master) plays a central role, narrating the story, voicing characters, and guiding the overall performance
Ludruk, a theatrical tradition fromEast Java, blends comedy, drama, and audience interaction through improvised dialogue and local humor. Ketoprak, another Javanese theater form, incorporates music, dance, and historical or folkloric storytelling.
InWest Java,SundaneseSandiwara portrays historical and mythological tales through music and drama, whileLenong from Betawi features humorous storytelling, often with social satire.Ondel-ondel, a Betawi folk performance, showcases giant puppet figures paraded during festivals as a symbol of cultural heritage.
InWest Sumatra,Randai integrates drama, music, dance, and the martial art "silek" (pencak silat), typically depictingMinangkabau legends.Bangsawan, popular inRiau and Malay-speaking regions, combines drama and music to present romantic or historical narratives.
Bali's theatrical traditions, deeply tied to dance and music, often retell epic stories with elaborate performances.
Modern performing art also developed in Indonesia with its distinct style of drama. Notable theatre, dance, and drama troupe such as Teater Koma are gaining popularity in Indonesia as their drama often portray social and politicalsatires of Indonesian society.[45]
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Pencak Silat originated and was first developed on the islands ofJava andSumatra.[46] Initially an art of survival, it spread across the Indonesian archipelago and became an integral part of local cultures. Centuries of tribal wars shaped silat into a combat skill used by warriors in ancient Indonesian kingdoms, where it also played a role in determining rank and status.
Over time, influences from Indian and Chinese martial arts further enriched silat. The practice spread outside Indonesia primarily through the diaspora, as people from areas such asAceh,Minangkabau,Riau,Bugis,Makassar,Javanese,Banjar, migrated to theMalay Peninsula and other islands, passing on their martial traditions to future generations. TheIndonesian of half-Dutch descent are also credited as the first to have brought the art into Europe.
Pencak silat was used by Indonesian independence fighters during their struggle againstDutch colonial rule. However, after Indonesia gained independence, pencak silat declined in popularity among Indonesian youth compared to foreign martial arts like Karate and Taekwondo. This decline was partly due to the tradition of teaching pencak silat only within families, rather than openly, as well as the lack of media representation. Efforts have been made to revive interest in silat among Indonesian youth and to promote it internationally. Exhibitions, demonstrations, and state-sponsored initiatives have contributed to its growing recognition, particularly in Europe and the United States. The 2009 Indonesian filmMerantau is one example of an effort to introduce pencak silat to the global stage.
Pencak Silat was recognized as aMasterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity byUNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) on 12 December 2019.[47]
Another martial art from Indonesia isTarung Derajat. It is a modern combat system created by Haji Ahmad Drajat based on his experience as a street fighter. Tarung Drajat has been acknowledged as a national sport byKONI in 1998 and is now used byIndonesian Army as part of their basic training.[48]
In Eastern Indonesia, a traditional martial art known asCaci involves whip or stick fighting. Originating fromFlores inEast Nusa Tenggara, Caci is also practiced inBali andLombok.
The oldest known cave painting in the world, dated to at least 51,200 years ago, was discovered inKarampuang cave,Sulawesi, Indonesia. This painting depicts three human-like figures interacting with a wild boar, making it the earliest known narrative art. Previously, the oldest known figurative paintings were found inLubang Jeriji Saléh cave,Borneo, estimated to be between 40,000 and 52,000 years old, and in Leang Bulu’ Sipong 4, Sulawesi, which features a hunting scene dated to at least 43,900 years ago. The earliest forms of cave art, including hand stencils and geometric shapes, have also been identified in theMaros Pangkep caves of Sulawesi, dating back over 44,000 years.[49][50][51]
Indonesian painting before the 19th century is mostly restricted to the decorative arts, considered to be a religious and spiritual activity, comparable to the pre-1400 European art. Artists' names are anonymous since the individual human creator was seen as far less important than their creation to honour the deities or spirits. Some examples are theKenyah decorative art, based on endemic natural motifs such as ferns and hornbills, found decorating the walls of Kenyah longhouses. Another notable traditional art is the geometricToraja wood carvings. Balinese paintings are initially the narrative images to depict scenes of Balinese legends and religious scripts. The classical Balinese paintings are often decorating thelontar manuscripts and also the ceilings oftemples pavilion.
Under the influence of the Dutch colonial power, a trend toward Western-style painting emerged in the 19th century. In the Netherlands, the term "Indonesian Painting" is applied to the paintings produced by Dutch or other foreign artists who lived and worked in the formerNetherlands-Indies. The most famous indigenous 19th-century Indonesian painter isRaden Saleh (1807–1877), the first indigenous artist to study in Europe. His art is heavily influenced byRomanticism.[52] In the 1920sWalter Spies settled in Bali, he is often credited with attracting the attention of Western cultural figures to Balinese culture and art. His works have somehow influenced Balinese artists and painters. Today Bali has one of the most vivid and richest painting traditions in Indonesia.
The 1920s to 1940s were a time of growing nationalism in Indonesia. The previous period of the romanticism movement was not seen as a purely Indonesian movement and did not develop. Painters began to see the natural world for inspiration. Some examples of Indonesian painter during this period are the BalineseIda Bagus Made and therealistBasuki Abdullah. The Indonesian Painters Association (Persatuan Ahli-Ahli Gambar Indonesia or PERSAGI, 1938–1942) was formed during this period. PERSAGI established a contemporary art philosophy that saw artworks as reflections of the artist's individual or personal view as well as an expression of national cultural thoughts.[53][54]
The art ofwood carving is quite well-developed in Indonesia. Other than tribal art woodcarvings ofAsmat,Batak,Dayak,Nias, andToraja area is well known for its refined wood carving culture; they are Jepara in Central Java and Bali. Mas village near Ubud in Bali is renowned for its wood carving art. Balinese woodcarving today has a sustained tourist market in Bali.
InSouth Papua,Asmat art consists of elaborate stylized wood carvings such as thebisj pole and is designed to honour ancestors. Many Asmat artefacts have been collected by the world's museums, among the most notable of which are those found in theMichael C. Rockefeller Collection at theMetropolitan Museum of Art inNew York City and theTropenmuseum inAmsterdam. Bisj poles are carved by Asmat religious carvers (wow-ipits) after a member of their tribe or community had been killed and headhunted by an enemy tribe. Carved out of a single piece of a wild mangrove tree, Bisj poles can reach heights of up to 25 feet (7.62 m). Their carvings depict human figures standing on top of each other, as well as animal figures, phallic symbols, and carvings in the shape of a canoe prow. The Asmat participated in headhunting raids and cannibalism as rituals, many rituals involved the Bisj poles, including dancing, masquerading, singing and headhunting—all performed by men.
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InNorth Sumatra, the people ofNias placed great value on wooden figures oradu. The sole purpose of the Nias figures was to fulfil ritual needs, whether it is to ensure wealth or to perform specific beneficial rite. Niassan figures vary in size, from as small as 20 centimetres (7.9 in) in height to more than 2 metres (6.6 ft) tall. When an elderly person died, the family would make a wooden statue known as adu zatua. The statue was unveiled on the fourth day after the death of the person. The shape of the wooden statue reflects the status of the person who used them: the more powerful the owner, the more impressive the statue will be made. Nias people believed that the deceased person's spirits reside in the statue, so all events that occurred in the family were shared with the ancestor statues through prayers. Ancestor statues were placed in the main room of the house, sometimes more than a hundred. A missionary work in 1930 had recorded the removal of 'over 2000 "idols" from a house of new northern convert.' Some missionaries even recorded houses collapsing under the weight of these ancestor figures. Small adu zatua were bound together horizontally using a rattan and pegs.
Many ancestor figures were destroyed in 1916 by Christian missionary movements which saw them as an old blasphemous religious symbol. Some were sold to collectors and can be found in museum or private collections around the world.
InSulawesi,Torajans carve wood, calling it Pa'ssura (or "the writing"). One of the Toraja wood carvings isTau tau, Tau tau is a kind of human statue made of wood or bamboo. Torajans believe that the dead can take their possessions with them to the afterlife, the effigies are usually equipped with small possessions. Traditionally, the effigies were simply carved, only to show the gender of the deceased. However, they have become more and more elaborate, actually attempting to imitate the likeness of the deceased. Nowadays, Tau tau has a photographic likeness to the people they represent.
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Indonesia has a long history of stone, bronze and Iron Ages arts.Indonesia has a rich history of Hindu–Buddhistsculpture andarchitecture that has been shaped by a complex fusion of local, indigenous culture combined with foreign customs. Some Indonesian artifacts made from gold and bronze dating back to the 10th century are exhibited in the US.[55] The megalithic sculptures can be found in numerous archaeological sites in Sumatra, Java to Sulawesi. Thenative Indonesians tribes have their own distinct tribal sculpture styles, usually created to depict ancestors, deities and animals. The stone sculpture artform particularly flourished in 8th-to-10th-century Java and Bali, which demonstrate the influences of Hindu-Buddhist culture, both as stand-alone works of art and also incorporated into temples. The most notable sculpture of the classical Hindu-Buddhist era of Indonesia are the hundreds of meters of relief and hundreds of stone buddhas at the temple ofBorobudur in central Java. Approximately two miles of exquisite relief sculpture tell the story of the life ofBuddha and illustrate his teachings. The temple was originally home to 504 statues of the seated Buddha.
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The examples of notable Indonesian Hindu-Buddhist sculptures are; the statues of Hindu deities;Shiva,Vishnu,Brahma,Durga,Ganesha andAgastya enthroned in rooms ofPrambanan temples, theVishnu mountingGaruda statue of kingAirlangga, the exquisite statue of Eastern JavanesePrajnaparamita and 3.7 meters tallDvarapala dated fromSinghasari period, and also the grand statue of BhairavaAdityawarman discovered in Sumatra. Today, the Hindu-Buddhist style stone sculptures are reproduced in villages inMuntilan near Borobudur also inTrowulan the former capital site ofMajapahit in East Java, andBali, and sold as a garden or pool ornament statues for homes, offices and hotels.
The walls ofcandi also often displayedbas-reliefs, either serve as decorative elements as well as to convey religious symbolic meanings; through describing narrative bas-reliefs. The most exquisite of the temple bas-reliefs can be found in Hindu and Buddhist temples. The first four terraces of Borobudur walls are showcases for bas-relief sculptures. These are exquisite, considered to be the most elegant and graceful in the ancient Buddhist world.[56] The Buddhist scriptures describes as bas-reliefs in Borobudur such asKarmavibhangga (the law of karma),Lalitavistara (the birth of Buddha),Jataka,Avadana andGandavyuha. While inPrambanan the Hindu scriptures is describes in its bas-relief panels; theRamayana andBhagavata Purana (popularly known asKrishnayana).
The bas-reliefs in Borobudur depicted many scenes of daily life in 8th-century ancient Java, from the courtly palace life, hermit in the forest, to those of commoners in the village. It also depicted a temple, marketplace, various flora and fauna, and alsonative vernacular architecture. People depicted here are the images of king, queen, princes, noblemen, courtier, soldier, servant, commoners, priest and hermit. The reliefs also depicted mythical spiritual beings in Buddhist beliefs such asasuras, gods,boddhisattvas,kinnaras,gandharvas andapsaras. The images depicted on bas-relief often served as a reference for historians to research certain subjects, such as the study of architecture, weaponry, economy, fashion, and also the mode of transportation of 8th-centuryMaritime Southeast Asia. One of the famous renderings of an 8th-century Southeast Asian double outrigger ship isBorobudur Ship.
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For centuries, Indonesian vernacular architecture has shaped settlements in Indonesia which commonly took the form of timber structures built on stilts dominated by a large roof. The most dominant foreign influences onIndonesian architecture wereIndian, although European influences have been particularly strong since the 19th century and modern architecture in Indonesia is international in scope.
As in much ofSoutheast Asia, traditional vernacular architecture in Indonesia is built on stilts, with the significant exceptions of Java and Bali. Notablestilt houses are those of theDayak people inBorneo, theRumah Gadang of theMinangkabau people in western Sumatra, theRumah Bolon of theBatak people in northern Sumatra, and theTongkonan of theToraja people inSulawesi. Oversized saddle roofs with large eaves, such as the homes of the Batak and thetongkonan of Toraja, are often bigger than the house they shelter. The fronts of Torajan houses are frequently decorated with buffalo horns, stacked one above another, as an indication of status. The outside walls also frequently feature decorative reliefs.
Candi is an Indonesian term to refer to ancient temples. Before the rise of Islam, between the 5th to 15th-century Dharmic faiths (Hinduism and Buddhism) were the majority in the Indonesian archipelago, especially in Java and Sumatra. As a result of numerous Hindu temples, locally known as candi, constructed and dominated the landscape of Java. According to local beliefs, Java valley had thousands of Hindu temples that co-existed with Buddhist temples, most of which were buried in the massive eruption ofMount Merapi in 1006 AD.
Between 1100 and 1500 additional Hindu temples were built, but abandoned by Hindus and Buddhists as Islam spread in Java circa the 15th to 16th century. The 8th-centuryBorobudur temple nearYogyakarta is the largest Buddhist temple in the world and is notable for incorporating about 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues into its structure, telling the story of the life of the Buddha. As the visitor ascends through the eight levels of the temple, the story unfolds, the final three levels simply containingstupas and statues of the Buddha. The building is said to incorporate a map of the Buddhist cosmos and is a masterful fusion of didactic narrative relief, spiritual symbolism, monumental design and the serene meditative environs. The whole monument itself resembles a giant stupa, but seen from above it forms amandala.[57]
The nearby 9th-century temple complex atPrambanan contains some of the best-preserved examples ofHindu temple architecture in Java. The temple complex comprises eight main shrines, surrounded by 224 smaller shrines. The majority of Hindu temples in Java were dedicated to Shiva, who Javanese Hindus considered as the God who commands the energy to destroy, recombine and recreate the cycle of life. Small temples were often dedicated to Shiva and his family (wife Durga, son Ganesha). Larger temple complexes include temples for Vishnu and Brahma, but the most majestic, sophisticated and central temple was dedicated to Shiva.
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Indonesia is considered as home of worldhandicraft.[58] Every ethnic group has its own uniqueness, style, and philosophy of crafting.[58] Most of them are made from wooden,bone,fabric,stone, andpaper. These natural materials were crafted using hands intoprofitable and aesthetic items.[58] Handicraft manufacturing serves not only as an important economic sector, but also a tradition and has a social function as well.[59] The handicraft industry employs thousands of people in towns and villages across the country. About half a billion dollar worth of handicraft is exported every year, and many more is consumed domestically.[58][59]
There are many varieties of handicraft from other regions.[58]West Sumatra andSouth Sumatra are particularly noted for theirsongket cloths.[60] Villages in theLesser Sunda Islands produceikat while provinces inKalimantan are long known for theirbasketry and weaving usingrattan and other natural fabrics.[61] Wood art produced by the Asmat people ofPapua is highly valued.[62] Cities along Java's northern coast,Cirebon,Pekalongan, andRembang are known as centres of batik.[63] Cirebon and Jepara are important cities in furniture, producing rattan and carved wood respectively,[64] whileTasikmalaya is known for embroidery.[65]Pasuruan also produces furniture and other products and support storesand galleries inBali.[58]Bandung andSurabaya, both modern, cosmopolitan, and industrialised cities—much like Jakarta but on a lesser scale—are creative cities with a variety of innovative startups.[58]
Several Indonesian islands are famous for theirbatik,ikat andsongket cloth. Once on the brink of disappearing, batik and later ikat, found a new lease on life when former PresidentSuharto promoted wearing batik shirts on official occasions. In addition to the traditional patterns with their special meanings, used for particular occasions, batik designs have become creative and diverse over the last few years.
Other noted Indonesian crafts areJeparawood carving[66][unreliable source?] andKris. In 2005, UNESCO recognised Kris as one ofMasterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity from Indonesia.[67]
In 2012,Noken was listed in theUNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists as a cultural heritage ofIndonesia.[68] Women carrying noken are still a common sight inWamena.[69]
Being the best-known Indonesian sailing-vessel,Phinisi became the tagline for the 2017 inscription of ''The Art of Boatbuilding in South Sulawesi'' in theUNESCO's Representative List of theIntangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
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Digital preservation has emerged as a pivotal strategy for safeguarding Indonesia's diverse and rich traditional arts.[70] By integrating modern technology andparticipatory media practices, art forms such asgamelan music,Balinese dance, andwayang kulit are being preserved for future generations.[71] Through digital archives, animation, and interactive platforms, these traditions are transcending geographical and temporal barriers, ensuring global reach and continued cultural relevance.
Indonesia's best-known national costumes areBatik andkebaya, although initially these costumes originated mainly fromJavanese andBalinese culture, which are most prominent in Javanese,Sundanese and Balinese cultures. BecauseJava has become the political centre and population of Indonesia, the island's folk costume has been raised to national status. As a plural country, Indonesia has38 provinces, each of which has representatives of traditional clothing from each province with unique and different designs. National costumes are worn at official occasions and traditional ceremonies. each province in Indonesia – more complete each group in Indonesia, has its own traditional costumes. The costumes of this area are in Indonesian calledPakaian tradisional orPakaian adat, and are taken from traditional Indonesian textile traditions and crafts.
Batik is a cloth that is traditionally made using a manual wax-resist dyeing technique to form intricate patterns. Traditionally batik cloth is a large piece of intricately decorated cloth used by Javanese women askemben or torso wrap. Batik cloth was wrapped around the hips with multiple folds in front calledwiron, while the upper torso wearkebaya fitted dress. Traditionally for men, the edge of batik cloth also can be sewn together to make a tubular cloth assarong, or wrapped around hips askain in a fashion similar to women's. Later for men, the batik cloth also is sewn and made into contemporary batik men's shirt. Today,Batik shirts, which are commonly worn by men in Indonesia (especially in Java), are usually worn during formal occasions; such as attending weddings, traditional ceremonies, formal meetings, communal gatherings, etc.Batik is recognized as one of the important identity ofIndonesian culture.UNESCO designated Indonesian batik as aMasterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity on 2 October 2009.[73]
Thekebaya is thenational costume of women fromIndonesia, although it is more accurately endemic to theJavanese,Sundanese andBalinese peoples. It is sometimes made from sheer material such assilk, thincotton or semi-transparentnylon orpolyester, adorned withbrocade or floral patternembroidery. Kebaya usually worn with asarong or batikkain panjang, or other traditional woven garment such asikat,songket with a colorful motif.Kebaya is usually worn during official national events by Indonesian first lady, wives of Indonesian diplomats, and Indonesian ladies. It also worn by Indonesian ladies attending traditional ceremonies and weddings. During Balinese traditional ceremonies, Balinese women wore colorful Balinese stylekebaya withsongket Bali.
Songket is a hand-woven in silk or cotton, and intricately patterned with gold or silver threads. In Indonesia, songket is more prevalent inSumatra andLesser Sunda Islands (Bali, Lombok and Sumbawa), while in Java, batik is more popular. Various songket patterns are traditionally produced in Sumatra,Kalimantan,Bali,Sulawesi,Lombok andSumbawa. In Sumatra the famous songket production centers are inMinangkabau Pandai Sikek area,West Sumatra,[74]Jambi City.Jambi andPalembang,South Sumatra. In Bali, songket production villages can be found inKlungkung regency, especially at Sidemen andGelgel.[75] In the neighboring island of Lombok, the Sukarara village in Jonggat district, Central Lombok regency, is famous for songket making.[76]
ThePeci, also known assongkok orkopiah, is a cap traditionally worn by male Muslims in theIndonesian archipelago. It is quite similar to the Turkish-Egyptianfez. In Indonesia, the blackvelvet peci has become the national headdress with nationalist connotations made popular bySukarno.[77] A number of Indonesian nationalist movement activists in the early 20th century, wore a peci to convey their nationalistic sentiments and to demonstrate their Indonesian identity. Indonesian male presidents always wear apeci as part of their official presidential attire. Since then, the black velvetpeci is approved to be the national head-dress for Indonesian men. It is worn all over Indonesia, especially by government officials and men (usuallyMuslim men) throughout the country. Thepeci is usually worn with abatik shirt or western-style suits by men in Indonesia for those attending formal occasions.
Thecuisine of indonesia has been influenced byChinese culture andIndian culture, as well as byWestern culture. However, in return, Indonesian cuisine has also contributed to the cuisines of neighbouring countries, notablyMalaysia,Singapore, andBrunei, where Padang or Minangkabau cuisine from West Sumatra is very popular. Also,Satay (Sate inIndonesian), which originated from Java, Madura, and Sumatra, has gained popularity as a street vendor food from Singapore to Thailand. In the 15th century, both thePortuguese andArab traders arrived in Indonesia with the intention of trading for pepper and otherspices. During thecolonial era, immigrants from many countries arrived in Indonesia and brought different cultures as well as cuisines.
Mostnative Indonesians eatrice as the main dish, with a wide range of vegetables and meat asside dishes. However, in some parts of the country, such asPapua andAmbon, the majority of the people eatsago (a type oftapioca) andsweet potato.
Indonesian dishes are usually spicy, using a wide range ofchilli peppers and spices. The most popular dishes includenasi goreng (fried rice),Satay, Nasi Padang (a dish ofMinangkabau) and soy-based dishes, such astahu andtempe. A unique characteristic of some Indonesian food is the application of spicypeanut sauce in their dishes, as a dressing forGado-gado or Karedok (Indonesian style salad), or for seasoninggrilled chicken satay. Another unique aspect of Indonesian cuisine is usingterasi orbelacan, a pungentshrimp paste in dishes ofsambal oelek (hot pungent chilli sauce). The sprinkling of friedshallots also gives a uniquely crisp texture to some Indonesian dishes.
Chinese and Indian cultures have influenced the serving of food and the types of spices used. It is very common to findChinese food in Indonesia such asdimsum andnoodles, andIndian cuisine such asTandoori chicken. In addition, Western culture has significantly contributed to the extensive range of dishes. However, the dishes have been transformed to suit Indonesian tastes. For example, steaks are usually served with rice. Popular fast foods such asKentucky Fried Chicken are served with rice instead of bread andsambal (spicy sauce) instead of ketchup. Some Indonesian foods have been adopted by the Dutch, likeIndonesian rice table or 'rijsttafel'.
In 2023/2024,TasteAtlas rated Indonesian cuisine as the sixth best cuisine in the world. Indonesian cuisine is placed behindItalian,Japanese,Greek,Portuguese, andChinese cuisines, making Indonesian the best-rated cuisine inSoutheast Asia.[78]
The mythology of Indonesia is very diverse, theIndonesian people consisting of hundreds ofethnic groups, each with their own myths and legends. The stories within this system of lore often incorporate supernatural entities and magical creatures which form parts of Indonesian mythology. Others relate to creation myths and place naming legends that are often intertwined with historical figures and events. Ancient rituals for healing and traditional medicine as well as complex philosophies regarding health and disease can also be found.
These native mythologies are relatively free from foreign influences, such asTorajans,Nias,Bataks,Dayaks andPapuans. By contrast,Javanese,Balinese, and to some degreeSundanese were influenced byHindu-BuddhistIndian mythology as early as the 1st century CE.Hindu gods, legends and epics such asRamayana andMahabharata were adopted and adapted into a uniquely local form.
Hindu-Buddhist mythical beings have a role in Javanese and Balinese mythology, including Hindu gods and heroes,devatas,asuras,apsaras (known as hapsari or bidadari),kinnaras, etc., while native gods of nature such asSemar,Dewi Sri, andNyai Loro Kidul are either given identified as their Hindu counterpart or incorporated into a Java-Bali Hindu pantheon unknown in India. For example, native rice goddess Dewi Sri is identified withLakshmi the shakti of Vishnu, and Semar and his sons thePunakawans are incorporated into the epic ofMahabharata in Javanesewayang kulit, as the clown servants of thePandawas. Several names refer to gods, such asDewa (devas),Dewi (devi),dewata (devatas), and in native traditions usually referred to asBatara (male god) andBatari (female goddess).
After the coming ofIslam to theIndonesian archipelago,Islamic mythology especially those dealing with spiritual beings, such asdevils,demons,jinns andangels entered Indonesian mythology. InSumatra,Malay,Aceh andMinangkabau mythology was almost entirely supplanted by Islamic mythology. However, belief in local spirits such as the forest guardian, the ghost of water or haunted places still exists, often associated with a jinn or the tormented soul of a deceased human.
Early Indonesian literature originates inMalay literature, and the influence of these roots was felt until well into the twentieth century. The phrase "Indonesian literature" refers to Indonesian as written in the nation of Indonesia, but also covers literature written in an earlier form of the language, i.e. the Malay language written in theDutch East Indies.Pramoedya Ananta Toer was Indonesia's most internationally celebrated author, having won theMagsaysay Award as well as being considered for theNobel Prize in Literature. Other important figures include the lateChairil Anwar, a poet and member of the "Generation 45" group of authors who were active in the Indonesian independence movement. Tight information controls duringSuharto's presidency suppressed new writing, especially because of its ability to agitate for social reform.
In the bookMax Havelaar,Dutch authorMultatuli criticised the Dutch treatment of the Indonesians, which gained him international attention.
Modern Indonesian authors include Seno Gumira Adjidarma,Andrea Hirata, Habiburrahman El Shirazy,Ayu Utami,Gus tf Sakai,Eka Kurniawan, Ratih Kumala,Dee,Oka Rusmini. Some of their works have translated to other languages.
Poetry has a long tradition in Indonesia, particularly among ethnicallyMalay populations, of extemporary, interactive, oral composition of poetry. These poems are referred to aspantun. Contemporary Indonesian poets include among others,Sutardji Calzoum Bachri,Rendra,Taufiq Ismail,Afrizal Malna, Binhad Nurrohmat,Joko Pinurbo,Nyoman Tusthi Eddy, andSapardi Djoko Damono. In written poetry and prose, a number of traditional forms dominate, mainly:syair (traditional narrative poetry),gurindam (brief aphorisms),hikayat (stories, fairy-tales, animal fables, chronicles),babad (histories or chronicles).
On 15 December 2020 thePantun is recognized as aMasterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization).
Manytraditional games are still preserved and popular in Indonesia, although western culture has influenced some parts of them. Among three hundred officially recognised Indonesian cultures, there are many kinds of traditional games:cockfighting inBali, annual bull races inMadura, horse racing inSumbawa and stone jumping inNias. Stone jumping involves leaping over astone wall about up to 1.5 m high and was originally used to train warriors.Pencak Silat is another popular form of sport, which was influenced byAsian culture as a whole. Another form ofnational sport issepak takraw.[79] The rules are similar tovolleyball: to keep therattan ball in the air with the players' feet.
Popular modern sports in Indonesia played at the international level includefootball (soccer),badminton andbasketball.[80] Badminton is one of Indonesia's most successful sports. Indonesian badminton athletes have played inIndonesia Open Badminton Championship,All England Open Badminton Championships, and many international events, including theSummer Olympics and won Olympic gold medals since badminton was made an Olympic sport in1992.Rudy Hartono is a legendary Indonesian badminton player, who won All England titles seven times in a row (1968 through 1974).Indonesian teams have won theThomas Cup (men's world team championship) thirteen of the twenty-two times that it has been contested since they entered the series in 1957.[81] In the internationally popular sport of football (soccer), Indonesian teams have been active in theAsian Football Confederation (AFC).
Sporting events in Indonesia are organised by theNational Sports Committee of Indonesia (KONI). The committee, along with the government of Indonesia, has set a National Sports Day every 9 September with "Sports for All" as the motto. Indonesia has hosted theSoutheast Asian Games four times, in 1979, 1987, 1997 and 2011, and won the overall champion title in each of these years. As of 2011, Indonesia has won champion titles 10 times overall out of 18 SEA Games it has attended since debuted in 1977. The country also hosted the1993 Asian Basketball Championship.[82] Besides that, it has also hosted theAsian Games twice, the1962 Asian Games and the2018 Asian Games.
The largest chain of cinemas in Indonesia is21 Cineplex, which has cinemas spread throughout twenty-four cities on the major islands of Indonesia. Many smaller independent cinemas also exist.
In the 1980s, thefilm industry in Indonesia was at its peak, and dominated the cinemas in Indonesia with movies that have retained a high reputation, such asCatatan Si Boy andBlok M and actors like Onky Alexander, Meriam Bellina, Nike Ardilla and Paramitha Rusady.[83] The filmTjoet Nja' Dhien (1988) winning 9Citra Awards at the 1988Indonesian Film Festival.[84] It was also the first Indonesian movie chosen for screening at theCannes Film Festival,[85] where it was awarded Best International Film in 1989.[86] However, the film industry failed to continue its successes in the 1990s, when the number of movies produced decreased significantly, from 115 movies in 1990 to just 37 in 1993.[87][unreliable source?] As a result, most movies produced in the 1990s contained adult themes. The industry started to recover in the late 1990s, with the rise of independent directors and many new movies produced, such asGarin Nugroho'sCinta dalam Sepotong Roti,Riri Riza andMira Lesmana'sPetualangan Sherina andArisan! byNia Dinata.[83] Another form of recovery is the re-establishment of theIndonesian Film Festival (FFI), inactive for twelve years, and the creation of the Jakarta International Film Festival.Daun di Atas Bantal (1998) receivedAsia Pacific Film Festival inTaipei.[88][unreliable source?]
The public radio networkRadio Republik Indonesia (RRI) was founded in 1945. It consists of a network of regional stations located in all provinces of the archipelago. In most cities and large towns there are also many commercial stations. Since 2006, severaldigital radio stations have been based inJakarta andSurabaya, usingDigital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) and HybridHD-Radio.[89][90][91]
Islam isIndonesia's main religion, with almost 88% of Indonesians declared Muslim according to the 2000census,[92] making Indonesia the most populous Muslim-majority nation in the world. The remaining population is 9%Christian (of which roughly two-thirds areProtestant with the remainder mainlyCatholic, and a large minorityCharismatic), 2%Hindu, and 1%Buddhist.
ThePancasila, the statement of two principles that encapsulate the ideology of the Indonesian state, affirms that "The state shall be based on the belief in the one and only God".
![Labuhan procession in Yogyakarta[93] is believed to help preserve the balance of nature](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aLabuhan_ageng_3.jpg)
| Date (Gregorian Calendar) | Date (Religious Calendar) | English name | Local name | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 January | New Year's Day | Tahun Baru Masehi | ||
| Rabi' al-awwal 12 | Birth of the Prophet | Maulid NabiMuhammad | Birthday of the Islamic ProphetMuhammad | |
| January–February | Chinese New Year | Tahun Baru Imlek | 1st day of 1st month ofChinese Calendar | |
| March | Kasa 1 Pawukon 40 | Day of Silence | Hari Raya Nyepi (Tahun Baru Saka) | New Year ofBalinese saka calendar |
| March–April | Good Friday | WafatYesus Kristus/Isa Almasih (Jumat Agung) | Date varies; this is the Friday beforeEaster Sunday, which is the first Sunday after the first Paschal Full Moon following the official vernal equinox | |
| 1 May | Labour Day | Hari Buruh | ||
| May–June | Ascension of Jesus Christ | Kenaikan Yesus Kristus/Isa Almasih | ||
| May | Every May ofVaisakha | Buddha's Birthday | Waisak | In Indonesia it is celebrated asTrisuci Waisak, to commemorate three important events in Buddhism; Buddha's birthday, enlightenment and his death. The date varies according to theBuddhist calendar |
| Rajab 27 | Ascension of the Prophet | Isra Mi'raj NabiMuhammad | ||
| 1 June | Pancasila Day | Hari Lahir Pancasila | Public holiday since 2016, marks the date of Sukarno's 1945 address on the national ideology | |
| 17 August | Independence Day | Hari Proklamasi Kemerdekaan R.I. | Sukarno andMohammad Hatta as the proclaimers | |
| Shawwal 1–2 | Eid al-Fitr | Idul Fitri (Lebaran Mudik) | Date varies according to theIslamic calendar | |
| Dhu al-Hijjah 10 | Feast of the Sacrifice | Idul Adha (Lebaran Haji) | Date varies according to the Islamic calendar | |
| Muharram 1 | Islamic New Year | Tahun Baru Hijriyah | 1st day of the Muharram, the beginning of the new Islamic year | |
| 25 December | Christmas | Natal |
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