Pages from the "Songs ofShakespeare", illustrated by H.C. Hoskyns Abrahall (19th century)

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Key features of English culture include thelanguage, traditions, and beliefs that are common in the country, among much else. Since England’s creation by the Anglo-Saxons, important influences have included theNorman conquest,Catholicism,Protestantism, and immigration from theCommonwealth and elsewhere, as well as its position inEurope and theAnglosphere. English culture has had major influence across the world, in the British Isles and English colonies such as theUnited States.

Humour, tradition, and good manners are characteristics commonly associated with being English.^[1] England has made significant contributions in the world ofliterature, cinema, music,art and philosophy. Thesecretary of state for culture, media and sport is the government minister responsible for the cultural life of England.^[2]

Many scientific and technological advancements originated in England, the birthplace of theIndustrial Revolution. The country has played an important role in engineering, democracy, shipbuilding, aircraft, motor vehicles, mathematics, science and sport.

Many ancientstanding stone monuments were erected during the prehistoric period; amongst the best known areStonehenge,Avebury,Devil's Arrows,Rudston Monolith andCastlerigg. With the introduction ofAncient Roman architecture there was a development ofbasilicas,baths,amphitheaters,triumphal arches,villas,Roman temples,Roman roads,Roman forts,stockades andaqueducts.^[3] It was the Romans who founded the first cities and towns such as London, Bath, York, Chester and St Albans. Perhaps the best-known example isHadrian's Wall stretching right across northern England.^[4] Another well-preserved example is theRoman Baths atBath, Somerset.^[4]

English architecture begins with thearchitecture of the Anglo-Saxons. At least fifty surviving English churches are of Anglo-Saxon origin, although in some cases the Anglo-Saxon part is small and much-altered. All except one timber church are built of stone or brick, and in some cases show evidence of reused Roman work. The architectural character of Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastical buildings ranges fromCoptic-influenced architecture in the early period, through Early Christianbasilica influenced architecture, to (in the later Anglo-Saxon period) an architecture characterised bypilaster-strips, blankarcading,baluster shafts and triangular-headed openings.

Manycathedrals of England are ancient, dating from as far back as around 700. They are a major aspect of the country's artistic heritage. Medieval Christianity included theveneration of saints, withpilgrimages to places where particular saints'relics were interred. The possession of the relics of a popular saint was a source of funds for an individual church, as the faithful made donations and benefices in the hope that they might receive spiritual aid, a blessing or a healing from the presence of the physical remains of the holy person. Among those churches to benefit in particular wereSt Albans Abbey, which contained the relics of England'sfirst Christian martyr; Ripon with the shrine of its founderSt. Wilfrid; Durham, which was built to house the body of SaintsCuthbert of Lindisfarne andAidan; Ely with the shrine ofSt. Ethelreda; Westminster Abbey with the magnificent shrine of its founder St.Edward the Confessor; at Chichester, the remains ofSt. Richard; and at Winchester, those ofSt. Swithun.

All these saints brought pilgrims to their churches, but among them the most renowned wasThomas Becket, the late Archbishop of Canterbury, assassinated by henchmen ofKing Henry II in 1170. As a place of pilgrimage Canterbury was, in the 13th century, second only toSantiago de Compostela. In the 1170sGothic architecture was introduced at Canterbury andWestminster Abbey. Over the next 400 years it developed in England, sometimes in parallel with and influenced by Continental forms, but generally with great local diversity and originality.

Following theNorman Conquest Romanesque architecture (known here asNorman architecture) superseded Anglo-Saxon architecture; later there was a period of transition into English Gothic architecture (of which there are three periods, Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular).Norman architecture was built on a vast scale from the 11th century onwards in the form of castles and churches to help impose Norman authority upon their dominion.^[5] Many castles remain from themedieval period, such asWindsor Castle (longest-occupied castle in Europe),^[6]Bodiam Castle (amoated castle),Tower of London, andWarwick Castle. Expanding on theNorman base there was also castles,palaces,great houses, universities andparish churches.

English Gothic architecture flourished from the 12th to the early 16th century, and famous examples includeWestminster Abbey, the traditional place ofcoronation for theBritish monarch, which also has a long tradition as a venue forroyal weddings,^[7]Canterbury Cathedral, one of the oldest and most famous Christian structures in England;Salisbury Cathedral, which has the tallest churchspire in the UK; andYork Minster, which is the largest Gothic cathedral in Northern Europe.^[8]

Secularmedieval architecture throughout England has left a legacy of large stone castles. The invention of gunpowder and canons made castles redundant, and theEnglish Renaissance which followed facilitiated the development of new artistic styles for domestic architecture, notablyTudor,Elizabethan,Jacobean,English Baroque,Queen Anne andPalladian.^[9] Architecture during theTudor dynasty flourished with magnificent royal palaces, such asNonsuch Palace,Palace of Placentia,Hampton Court Palace,Hatfield House,Richmond Palace andPalace of Beaulieu.

One of the most acclaimed English architects wasSir Christopher Wren. He was employed byKing Charles II to design and rebuild London and many of its ruined ancient churches following theGreat Fire of London in 1666.^[10][11]Georgian andNeoclassical architecture advanced after theAge of Enlightenment, evoking achievements in elegant architecture and city planning; theRoyal Crescent at Bath is one of the best examples of this. The Regency ofGeorge IV is noted for its elegance and achievements in architecture and urban planning.^[12]Regency style is also applied to interior design anddecorative arts of the period, typified by elegant furniture and vertically striped wallpaper, and to styles of clothing; for men, as typified by the dandyBeau Brummell and for women theEmpire silhouette. In early modern times there was an influence fromRenaissance architecture until by the 18th century. Gothic forms of architecture had been abandoned and various classical styles were adopted. During theVictorian era,Gothic Revival architecture developed in England and was preferred for many types of buildings and city planning.Victorian architecture was widespread and pioneering engineering achievements (bridges, canals, railways, train stations, modern sewer systems) were constructed.^[13]

TheIndustrial Revolution paved the way for buildings such asThe Crystal Palace. The introduction of thesheet glass method into England byChance Brothers in 1832 made possible the production of large sheets of cheap but strong glass, and its use in the Crystal Palace created a structure with the greatest area of glass ever seen in a building. It astonished visitors with its clear walls and ceilings that did not require interior lights.^[14]Edwardian architecture followed in the early 20th century. Other buildings such ascathedrals andparish churches are associated with a sense of traditional Englishness, as is often the palatial 'stately home'. Many people are interested in theEnglish country house and the rural lifestyle, evidenced by the number of visitors to properties managed byEnglish Heritage and theNational Trust.

Landscape gardening as developed byCapability Brown set an international trend for theEnglish garden. Gardening, and visiting gardens, are regarded as typically English pursuits. By the end of the 18th century the English garden was being imitated by theFrench landscape garden, and as far away as St. Petersburg, Russia, inPavlovsk, the gardens of the futureEmperor Paul. It also had a major influence on the form of thepublic parks and gardens which appeared around the world in the 19th century.^[15]

Inspired by the greatlandscape artists of the seventeenth century, theEnglish garden presented an idealized view of nature. At large country houses, the English garden usually included lakes, sweeps of gently rolling lawns set against groves of trees, and recreations of classical temples,Gothic ruins, bridges, and other picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape.^[16] The English garden was centred on theEnglish country house, stately homes and parks.^[16]English Heritage and theNational Trust preserve large gardens and landscape parks throughout the country. TheRHS Chelsea Flower Show is held every year by theRoyal Horticultural Society and is said to be the largest gardening show in the world.^[17]

Following the building of the world's firstseaside pier atRyde, the pier became fashionable atseaside resorts in England during theVictorian era, peaking in the 1860s with 22 being built in that decade.^[18] A symbol of the typical English seaside holiday, by 1914 more than 100 pleasure piers were located around the UK coast. Regarded as being among the finest Victorian architecture, there are still a significant number of seaside piers of architectural merit still standing, although some have been lost, including two atBrighton in East Sussex and one atNew Brighton in theWirral.^[19] Two piers, Brighton's now derelictWest Pier andClevedon Pier, were Grade 1listed. TheBirnbeck Pier inWeston-super-Mare is the only pier in the world linked to an island. TheNational Piers Society gives a figure of 55 surviving seaside piers in England.^[20]

England has Europe's earliest and northernmost ice-agecave art.^[21] Early medievalAnglo-Saxon art saw the development of a distinctly English style,^[22] and English art continued thereafter to have a distinct character. English art made after the formation in 1707 of theKingdom of Great Britain may be regarded in most respects simultaneously asart of the United Kingdom. The two periods of outstanding achievement were the 7th and 8th centuries, with the metalwork and jewellery fromSutton Hoo and a series of magnificent illuminated manuscripts, and the final period after about 950, when there was a revival of English culture after the end of theViking invasions.^[23]

As in most of Europe at the time, metalwork was the most highly regarded form of art by theAnglo-Saxons.Anglo-Saxon taste favoured brightness and colour.Opus Anglicanum ("English work") was recognised as the finest embroidery in Europe. Perhaps the best known piece of Anglo-Saxon art is theBayeux Tapestry which was commissioned by aNorman patron from English artists working in the traditional Anglo-Saxon style. Anglo-Saxon artists also worked infresco,stone,ivory andwhalebone (notably theFranks Casket),metalwork (for example theFuller brooch),glass andenamel.^[23] Medieval English painting, mainly religious, had a strong national tradition and was influential in Europe.^[24]

There is in the art of theEnglish Renaissance a strong interest inportraiture, and theportrait miniature was more popular in England than anywhere else.^[25] English Renaissance sculpture was mainly architectural and formonumental tombs.^[26]English art was dominated by imported artists throughout much of theRenaissance, but in the 18th century a native tradition became much admired. It is considered to be typified bylandscape painting, such as the work ofJ. M. W. Turner andJohn Constable. Portraitists likeThomas Gainsborough andJoshua Reynolds were also significant.

In the 18th century,watercolour painting, mostly of landscapes, became an English specialty, with both a buoyant market for professional works, and a large number of amateur painters, many following the popular systems found in the books ofAlexander Cozens and others. By the beginning of the 19th century the English artists with the highest modern reputations were mostly dedicated landscape painters, showing the wide range ofRomantic interpretations of the English landscape.

Pictorial satiristWilliam Hogarth pioneered Western sequential art, and political illustrations in this style are often referred to as "Hogarthian".^[27] Following Hogarth,political cartoons developed in England in the late 18th century under the direction ofJames Gillray. Regarded as one of the two most influentialcartoonists (the other is Hogarth), Gillray has been referred to as the father of the political cartoon, with his satirical work calling the King (George III), prime ministers and generals to account.^[28] The early 19th century saw the emergence of theNorwich school of painters, the first provincialart movement outside of London. Its prominent members were "founding father"John Crome (1768–1821),John Sell Cotman (1782–1842),James Stark (1794–1859), andJoseph Stannard (1797–1830).^[29]

During theBaroque andRococo periods, the first major native portrait painters of the British school were English paintersThomas Gainsborough andSir Joshua Reynolds, who also specialised in clothing their subjects in an eye-catching manner. Gainsborough'sBlue Boy is one of the most famous and recognized portraits of all time, painted with very long brushes and thin oil colour to achieve the shimmering effect of the blue costume.^[30] Gainsborough was also noted for his elaborate background settings for his subjects.

ThePre-Raphaelite Brotherhood achieved considerable influence after its foundation in 1848 with paintings that concentrated on religious, literary, and genre subjects executed in a colourful and minutely detailed style. Its artists includedJohn Everett Millais,Dante Gabriel Rossetti and subsequentlyEdward Burne-Jones. Also associated with it was the designerWilliam Morris, whose efforts to make beautiful objects affordable for everyone led to his wallpaper and tile designs to some extent defining the Victorian aesthetic and instigating theArts and Crafts movement. TheRoyal Society of Arts is an organisation committed to the arts and culture.^[31]

TheRoyal Academy in London is a key organisation for the promotion of the visual arts in England. Major schools of art in England include: the six-schoolUniversity of the Arts London, which includes theCentral Saint Martins College of Art and Design andChelsea College of Art and Design;Goldsmiths, University of London; theSlade School of Fine Art (part ofUniversity College London); theRoyal College of Art; andThe Ruskin School of Drawing and Fine Art (part of the University of Oxford). TheCourtauld Institute of Art is a leading centre for the teaching of thehistory of art. Important art galleries in the United Kingdom include theNational Gallery,National Portrait Gallery,Tate Britain andTate Modern (the most-visited modern art gallery in the world, with around 4.7 million visitors per year).

A number ofumbrella organisations are devoted to the preservation and public access of both natural and cultural heritage, includingEnglish Heritage and theNational Trust. Membership with them, even on a temporary basis, gives priority free access to their properties.

English Heritage is a governmental body with a broad remit of managing the historic sites, artefacts and environments of England. It is currently sponsored by theDepartment for Culture, Media and Sport. English Heritage manages more than 400 significant buildings and monuments in England. They also maintain a register of thousands oflisted buildings,^[33] those which are considered of most importance to the historic and cultural heritage of the country.^[34]

Historic England is governmental body sponsored by theDepartment for Culture, Media and Sport. It is tasked with protecting the historic environment of England by preserving andlisting historic buildings, schedulingancient monuments, registering historic parks and gardens and by advising central and local government.^[34] TheNational Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty is a charity which also maintains multiple sites. One of the largest landowners in the United Kingdom, the Trust owns almost 250,000 hectares of land and 780 miles of coast. Its properties include over 500 historic houses, castles, archaeological and industrial monuments, gardens, parks and nature reserves.

17 of the 25 United KingdomUNESCO World Heritage Sites fall within England.^[35] Some of the best known of these includeHadrian's Wall,Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites,Tower of London,Jurassic Coast,Westminster,Roman Baths in Bath,Saltaire,Ironbridge Gorge, andStudley Royal Park. The northernmost point of the Roman Empire,Hadrian's Wall, is the largest Roman artefact anywhere: it runs a total of 73 miles in northern England.^[36]

London'sBritish Museum hosts a collection of more than seven million objects^[38] is one of the largest and most comprehensive in the world, sourced from every continent, illustrating and documenting the story of human culture from its beginning to the present.^[39] The library has two of the four remaining copies of the originalMagna Carta (the other two copies are held inLincoln Castle andSalisbury Cathedral) and has a room devoted solely to them. TheBritish Library Sound Archive has over six million recordings, many from theBBC Sound Archive, including Winston Churchill's wartime speeches.

TheBritish Library in London is the national library and is one of the world's largest research libraries, holding over 150 million items in all known languages and formats; including around 25 million books.^[40] The most senior art gallery is theNational Gallery in Trafalgar Square, which houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900.^[41] The Tate galleries house the national collections of British and international modern art; they also host the famously controversialTurner Prize.^[42] TheAshmolean Museum was founded in 1677 from the personal collection ofElias Ashmole, was set up in theUniversity of Oxford to be open to the public and is considered by some to be the first modern public museum.^[43] In 2011 there were more than 1,600 museums in England.^[44] Most museums and art galleries are free of charge.^[45]

Ablue plaque, the oldesthistorical marker scheme in the world, is a permanent sign installed in a public place in the UK to commemorate a link between that location and a famous person or event.^[46] The scheme was the brainchild of politicianWilliam Ewart in 1863 and was initiated in 1866.^[46] It was formally established by theRoyal Society of Arts in 1867, and since 1986 has been run byEnglish Heritage.^[46]

Tourism plays a significant part in the economic life of England. In 2018, the United Kingdom as a whole was the world's 10th most visited country for tourists,^[47] and 17 of the United Kingdom's 25UNESCO World Heritage Sites fall within England.^[48]VisitEngland is the official tourist board for England.VisitEngland's stated mission is to build England's tourism product, raise its profile worldwide, increase the volume and value of tourism exports and develop England and Britain's visitor economy.^[49] In 2020, theLonely Planet travel guide rated England as the second best country to visit that year, afterBhutan.^[50]

TheParliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Arts and Heritage is the minister with responsibility over tourism in England, including museums, art galleries, public libraries and the National Archives.^[51]

Early authors such asBede andAlcuin wrote inLatin.^[52] The period ofOld English literature provided the epic poemBeowulf and the fragmentaryThe Battle of Maldon, the sombre and introspectiveThe Seafarer,The Wanderer, the piousDream of the Rood, The Order of the World, and the secular prose of theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle,^[53] along with Christian writings such asJudith,Cædmon'sHymn andhagiographies (biographies of saints).^[52] Following theNorman conquest in 1066, Latin continued amongst the educated classes, and anAnglo-Norman literature developed.

Middle English literature emerged withGeoffrey Chaucer, author ofThe Canterbury Tales, along withGower, thePearl Poet andLangland.William of Ockham andRoger Bacon, who wereFranciscans, were major philosophers of the Middle Ages.Julian of Norwich, who wroteRevelations of Divine Love, was a prominent Christian mystic.

With theEnglish Renaissance, literature in theEarly Modern English style appeared.William Shakespeare, whose works includeHamlet,Romeo and Juliet,Macbeth, andA Midsummer Night's Dream, remains one of the most championed authors in English literature.^[54] He is widely regarded as the greatest dramatist of all time.^[55][56]

Christopher Marlowe,Edmund Spenser,Philip Sydney,Thomas Kyd,John Donne, andBen Jonson are other established authors of theElizabethan age.^[57]Francis Bacon andThomas Hobbes wrote onempiricism andmaterialism, includingscientific method andsocial contract.^[57]Robert Filmer wrote on theDivine Right of Kings.Andrew Marvell was the best-known poet of theCommonwealth of England,^[58] whileJohn Milton authoredParadise Lost during theRestoration.

Some of the most prominent philosophers of theEnlightenment wereJohn Locke,Thomas Paine,Samuel Johnson andJeremy Bentham. More radical elements were later countered byEdmund Burke, who is regarded as the founder ofconservatism.^[59] The poetAlexander Pope with his satirical verse became well regarded. The English played a significant role inRomanticism:Samuel Taylor Coleridge,Lord Byron,John Keats,Mary Shelley,Percy Bysshe Shelley,Jane Austen,William Blake andWilliam Wordsworth were major figures.^[60]

In response to theIndustrial Revolution, agrarian writers sought a way between liberty and tradition;William Cobbett,G. K. Chesterton andHilaire Belloc were main exponents, while the founder ofguild socialism,Arthur Penty, andcooperative movement advocateG. D. H. Cole are somewhat related.^[61] Empiricism continued throughJohn Stuart Mill andBertrand Russell, whileBernard Williams was involved inanalytics. Authors from around theVictorian era includeCharles Dickens, theBrontë sisters,George Eliot,Rudyard Kipling,Thomas Hardy,H. G. Wells andLewis Carroll.^[62] Since then England has continued to produce novelists such asGeorge Orwell,D. H. Lawrence,Virginia Woolf,C. S. Lewis,Enid Blyton,Aldous Huxley,Agatha Christie,Terry Pratchett,J. R. R. Tolkien, andJ. K. Rowling.^[63]

Writers often associated with England, or who are seen to express Englishness, include Shakespeare (who produced twotetralogies ofhistory plays about the English kings),Jane Austen,Arnold Bennett, andRupert Brooke (whose poem "The Old Vicarage, Grantchester" is often considered quintessentially English). Other writers are associated with specific regions of England; these includeCharles Dickens (London),Thomas Hardy (Wessex),A. E. Housman (Shropshire), and theLake Poets (theLake District).

The 20th-century crime writerAgatha Christie is thebest-selling novelist of all time.^[64] Her mystery novels are outsold only by Shakespeare and The Bible. Described as "perhaps the 20th century's best chronicler of English culture", the non-fiction works ofGeorge Orwell includeThe Road to Wigan Pier (1937), documenting his experience of working class life in the north of England.^[65] Orwell's eleven rules for making tea appear in his essay "A Nice Cup of Tea", which was published in theLondon Evening Standard on 12 January 1946.^[66]

In 2003 theBBC carried out a survey entitledThe Big Read to find the "nation's best-loved novel" of all time, with works byJ. R. R. Tolkien,Jane Austen,Philip Pullman,Douglas Adams andJ. K. Rowling making up the top five.^[67] In 2005, some 206,000 books were published in the United Kingdom and in 2006 it was thelargest publisher of books in the world.^[68] TheRoyal Society of Literature was founded in 1820, byKing George IV, to "reward literary merit and excite literary talent". The society is a cultural tenant at London'sSomerset House.^[69]

Due to the expansion of English into aworld language during the British Empire, literature is now written in English across the world.

England has a long and rich musical history, and more English people attend live music performances than football matches.^[70] The traditionalfolk music of England is centuries old and has contributed to several genres prominently; mostlysea shanties,jigs,hornpipes anddance music. It has its own distinct variations and regional peculiarities. Ballads featuring Robin Hood, printed byWynkyn de Worde in the 16th century, are an important artefact, as areJohn Playford'sThe Dancing Master andRobert Harley'sRoxburghe Ballads collections.

Some of the best-known songs areGreensleeves,Pastime with Good Company,Maggie May andSpanish Ladies amongst others. Manynursery rhymes are of English origin such asMary, Mary, Quite Contrary,Roses Are Red,Jack and Jill,London Bridge Is Falling Down,The Grand Old Duke of York,Hey Diddle Diddle andHumpty Dumpty. Traditional English Christmas carols includeWe Wish You a Merry Christmas,The First Noel,I Saw Three Ships andGod Rest You Merry, Gentlemen.

England, like most European countries, has undergone a roots revival in the last half of the 20th century. English music has been an instrumental and leading part of this phenomenon, which peaked at the end of the 1960s and into the 1970s. TheEnglish Musical Renaissance was a hypothetical development in the late 19th and early 20th century, when English composers, often those lecturing or trained at theRoyal College of Music, were said to have freed themselves from foreign musical influences, to have begun writing in a distinctively national idiom.^[71]

The achievements of theAnglican choral tradition following on from 16th-century composers such asThomas Tallis,John Taverner andWilliam Byrd have tended to overshadow instrumental composition. The semi-operatic innovations ofHenry Purcell were significant. Classical music attracted much attention from 1784 with the formation of theBirmingham Triennial Music Festival, which was the longest running classical music festival of its kind until the final concerts in 1912.George Frideric Handel found important royal patrons and enthusiastic public support in England. He spent most of his composing life in London and became a national icon, creating some of the most well-known works of classical music, especially his English oratoriosThe Messiah,Solomon,Water Music, andMusic for the Royal Fireworks. One of Handel's fourCoronation Anthems,Zadok the Priest (1727), composed for the coronation ofGeorge II, has been performed at every subsequentBritish coronation, traditionally during the sovereign's anointing. TheRoyal Academy of Music is the oldestconservatoire in the UK, founded in 1822. It received itsroyal charter in 1830 fromKing George IV. Famous academy alumni includeSir Simon Rattle,Sir Harrison Birtwistle,Sir Elton John andAnnie Lennox.

The emergence of figures such asSir Edward Elgar andSir Arthur Sullivan in the 19th century showed a new vitality in English music. Indeed, whilst President ofThe Birmingham & Midland Institute in 1888Sullivan delivered an address atBirmingham Town Hall on the development of music in England.^[73] In the 20th century,Benjamin Britten andMichael Tippett emerged as internationally recognised opera composers, andRalph Vaughan Williams and others collected English folk tunes and adapted them to the concert hall.Cecil Sharp was a leading figure in the English folk revival.The Proms, an annual summer season of daily classical music concerts, is a significant event in English musical life. TheLast Night of the Proms features patriotic music.^[74]

A new trend emerged fromLiverpool in 1962.The Beatles became the most popular musicians of their time, and in the composing duo ofJohn Lennon andPaul McCartney, popularized the concept of the self-contained music act. Before the Beatles, very few popular singers composed the tunes they performed. The "Fab Four" opened the doors for other acts from England such asThe Rolling Stones,Led Zeppelin,Pink Floyd,Cream,The Kinks,The Who,Eric Clapton,David Bowie,Queen,Elton John,The Hollies,Black Sabbath,Deep Purple,Genesis,Dire Straits,Iron Maiden,The Police to the globe. Many musical genres have origins in (or strong associations with) England, such asBritish invasion,progressive rock,hard rock,Mod,glam rock,heavy metal,Britpop,indie rock,gothic rock,shoegazing,acid house,garage,trip hop,drum and bass anddubstep.^[75] TheSex Pistols andThe Clash were pioneers of punk rock. Some of England's leading contemporary artists includeGeorge Michael,Sting,Seal,Rod Stewart,The Smiths,The Stone Roses,Oasis,Blur,Radiohead,The Cure,Depeche Mode,Coldplay,Def Leppard,Muse,Arctic Monkeys,Adele andEd Sheeran.

England has had a considerable influence on the history of the cinema, producing some of the greatest actors, directors and motion pictures of all time, includingAlfred Hitchcock,Charlie Chaplin,David Lean,Laurence Olivier,Vivien Leigh,John Gielgud,Peter Sellers,Julie Andrews,Michael Caine,Gary Oldman,Helen Mirren,Kate Winslet andDaniel Day-Lewis. Hitchcock and Lean are among the most critically acclaimed directors of all time.^[78] Hitchcock's first thriller,The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog (1926), helped shape thethriller genre in film, while his 1929 film,Blackmail, is often regarded as the first Britishsound feature film.^[79]

Major film studios in England includePinewood,Elstree andShepperton. Some of the most commercially successful films of all time have been produced in England, including two of thehighest-grossing film franchises (Harry Potter andJames Bond).^[80]Ealing Studios in London has a claim to being the oldest continuously working film studio in the world.^[81] Famous for recording many motion picturefilm scores, theLondon Symphony Orchestra first performed film music in 1935.^[82]

TheBFI Top 100 British films includesMonty Python's Life of Brian (1979), a film regularly voted the funniest of all time by the UK public.^[83] English producers are also active ininternational co-productions and English actors, directors and crew feature regularly in Hollywood films.Ridley Scott was among a group of English filmmakers, includingTony Scott,Alan Parker,Hugh Hudson andAdrian Lyne, who emerged from making 1970s UK television commercials.^[84] The UK film council rankedDavid Yates,Christopher Nolan,Mike Newell, Ridley Scott andPaul Greengrass the five most commercially successful English directors since 2001.^[85] Other contemporary directors from England includeSam Mendes,Guy Ritchie andSteve McQueen. Current actors includeTom Hardy,Daniel Craig,Benedict Cumberbatch andEmma Watson. Acclaimed for his motion capture work,Andy Serkis openedThe Imaginarium Studios in London in 2011.^[86] The visual effects companyFramestore in London has produced some of the most critically acclaimed special effects in modern film.^[87] Many successful Hollywood films have been based on English people,stories or events. The 'English Cycle' of Disney animated films includeAlice in Wonderland,The Jungle Book,Robin Hood andWinnie the Pooh.^[88]

The peak of English drama and theatre is said to be the age ofElizabeth I; a golden age in English history where the arts, drama and creative work flourished.Morality plays emerged as a distinct dramatic form around 1400 and flourished in the earlyElizabethan era in England. Characters were often used to represent different ethical ideals.Everyman, for example, includes such figures as Good Deeds, Knowledge and Strength, and this characterisation reinforces the conflict between good and evil for the audience.The Castle of Perseverance (c. 1400–1425) depicts an archetypal figure's progress from birth through to death.Horestes (c. 1567), a late "hybrid morality" and one of the earliest examples of an Englishrevenge play, brings together the classical story ofOrestes with aVice from the medievalallegorical tradition, alternating comic,slapstick scenes with serious,tragic ones. Also important in this period were the folk dramas of theMummers Play, performed during the Christmas season. Courtmasques were particularly popular during the reign ofHenry VIII. The first permanent English theatre, theRed Lion, opened in 1567.^[89] The first successful theatres, such asThe Theatre, opened in 1576. The establishment of large and profitable public theatres was an essential enabling factor in the success ofEnglish Renaissance drama.

Archaeological excavations on the foundations of the Rose and the Globe in the late 20th century showed that all the London theatres had individual differences, but their common function necessitated a similar general plan.^[90] The public theatres were three stories high, and built around an open space at the centre. Usually polygonal in plan to give an overall rounded effect, although the Red Bull and the first Fortune were square. The three levels of inward-facing galleries overlooked the open centre, into which jutted the stage: essentially a platform surrounded on three sides by the audience. The rear side was restricted for the entrances and exits of the actors and seating for the musicians. The upper level behind the stage could be used as abalcony, as inRomeo and Juliet andAntony and Cleopatra, or as a position from which an actor could harangue a crowd, as inJulius Caesar.^[91]

The growing population of England, the growing wealth of its people, and their fondness for spectacle produced a dramatic literature of remarkable variety, quality, and extent. Genres of the period included thehistory play, which depicted English or European history.Shakespeare's plays about the lives of kings, such asRichard III andHenry V, belong to this category, as doChristopher Marlowe'sEdward II andGeorge Peele'sFamous Chronicle of King Edward the First. History plays dealt with more recent events, likeA Larum for London which dramatizes the sack ofAntwerp in 1576.Tragedy was a very popular genre. Marlowe's tragedies were exceptionally successful, such asDr. Faustus andThe Jew of Malta. The audiences particularly likedrevenge dramas, such asThomas Kyd'sThe Spanish Tragedy. The four tragedies considered to be Shakespeare's greatest (Hamlet,Othello,King Lear, andMacbeth) were composed during this period.

Comedies were common. A subgenre developed in this period was thecity comedy, which deals satirically with life in London after the fashion of RomanNew Comedy. Examples areThomas Dekker'sThe Shoemaker's Holiday andThomas Middleton'sA Chaste Maid in Cheapside. Though marginalised, the older genres likepastoral (The Faithful Shepherdess, 1608), and even themorality play (Four Plays in One, ca. 1608–13) could exert influences. After about 1610, the new hybrid subgenre of thetragicomedy enjoyed an efflorescence, as did themasque throughout the reigns of the first twoStuart kings,James I andCharles I.

The re-opening of the theatres in 1660 after the Restoration ofCharles II signalled a renaissance of English drama. With the restoration of the monarch in 1660 came the restoration of and the reopening of the theatre. Englishcomedies written and performed in theRestoration period from 1660 to 1710 are collectively calledRestoration comedy. Restoration comedy is notorious for itssexual explicitness, a quality encouraged byCharles II (1660–1685) personally and by therakish aristocraticethos of hisRoyal court. For the first time women were allowed to act, putting an end to the practice of theboy-player taking the parts of women. Socially diverse audiences included both aristocrats, their servants and hangers-on, and a substantial middle-class segment. Its dramatists stole freely from EnglishJacobean andCaroline plays, and even fromGreek andRoman classical comedies, combining the various plotlines in adventurous ways.

Restoration audiences liked to see good triumph in their tragedies and rightful government restored. In comedy they liked to see the love-lives of the young and fashionable, with a central couple bringing their courtship to a successful conclusion (often overcoming the opposition of the elders to do so). Heroines had to be chaste, but were independent-minded and outspoken; now that they were played by women, there was more mileage for the playwright in disguising them in men's clothes or giving them narrow escape from rape. These playgoers were attracted to the comedies by up-to-the-minute topical writing, by crowded and bustling plots, by the introduction of the first professional actresses, and by the rise of the first celebrity actors. This period saw the first professional woman playwright,Aphra Behn. In the mid-1690s, a brief second Restoration comedy renaissance arose, aimed at a wider audience.

The unsentimental or "hard" comedies ofJohn Dryden,William Wycherley, andGeorge Etherege reflected the atmosphere at Court and celebrated with frankness an aristocraticmacho lifestyle of unremitting sexual intrigue and conquest. TheEarl of Rochester, real-life Restoration rake, courtier and poet, is flatteringly portrayed in Etherege'sThe Man of Mode (1676) as a riotous, witty, intellectual, and sexually irresistible aristocrat, a template for posterity's idea of the glamorousRestoration rake (actually never a very common character in Restoration comedy). The single play that does most to support the charge ofobscenity levelled then and now at Restoration comedy is probably Wycherley's masterpieceThe Country Wife (1675), whose title contains a lewdpun and whose notorious "china scene" is a series of sustaineddouble entendres.^[92]

During the second wave of Restoration comedy in the 1690s, the "softer" comedies ofWilliam Congreve andJohn Vanbrugh set out to appeal to more socially diverse audience with a strong middle-class element, as well as to female spectators. The comic focus shifts from young lovers outwitting the older generation to the vicissitudes of marital relations. In Congreve'sLove for Love (1695) andThe Way of the World (1700), the give-and-take set pieces of couples testing their attraction for one another have mutated into witty prenuptial debates on the eve of marriage, as in the latter's "Proviso" scene. Vanbrugh'sThe Provoked Wife (1697) has a light touch and more humanly recognisable characters, whileThe Relapse (1696) has been admired for its throwaway wit and the characterisation of Lord Foppington, an extravagant and affected burlesquefop with a dark side.^[93]

As a reaction to the decadence of Charles II era productions,sentimental comedy grew in popularity. This genre focused on encouraging virtuous behavior by showing middle class characters overcoming a series of moral trials. Playwrights likeColley Cibber andRichard Steele believed that humans were inherently good but capable of being led astray. Through plays such asThe Conscious Lovers andLove's Last Shift they strove to appeal to an audience's noble sentiments so that viewers could be reformed.^[94][95] TheRestoration spectacular hit the London public stage in the late 17th-centuryRestoration period, enthralling audiences with action, music, dance, moveablescenery,baroque illusionistic painting, gorgeous costumes, andspecial effects such astrapdoor tricks, "flying" actors, andfireworks.

Today there are a variety of theaters inLondon's West End.Andrew Lloyd Webber dominated theWest End for many years; his musicals also conqueredBroadway and were made into films. The prestigiousRoyal Shakespeare Company operates out of Shakespeare's hometown of Stratford-upon-Avon and performs primarily, but not exclusively, his works. Important modern playwrights areAlan Ayckbourn,John Osborne,Harold Pinter,Tom Stoppard andArnold Wesker.

Large outdoormusic festivals in the summer and autumn are popular, such asGlastonbury (the largest greenfield festival in the world),V Festival,Reading and Leeds Festivals. England was at the forefront of the illegal, freerave movement from the late 1980s, which led to the pan-European culture ofteknivals mirrored on the UK free festival movement and associated travelling lifestyle.^[96] The most prominentopera house in England is theRoyal Opera House atCovent Garden.^[97]The Proms, a season oforchestral classical music concerts held at theRoyal Albert Hall, is a major cultural event held annually.^[97] The season is a significant event in English culture and in classical music. Czech conductorJiří Bělohlávek described the Proms as "the world's largest and most democratic musical festival".^[98]

The Royal Ballet is one of the world's foremostclassical ballet companies, based at theRoyal Opera House. The company employs approximately 100 dancers and has purpose-built facilities. Its reputation built on two prominent figures of 20th century dance, prima ballerinaMargot Fonteyn and choreographerFrederick Ashton. Since the Royal Albert Hall's opening byQueen Victoria in 1871, the world's leading artists from many performance genres have appeared on its stage. It is the venue forThe Proms concerts, which have been held there every summer since 1941. It is host to more than 390 shows in the main auditorium annually, including classical, rock and pop concerts, ballet, opera, film screenings with live orchestral accompaniment.^[99] England is home to numerous major orchestras such as theBBC Symphony Orchestra, theRoyal Philharmonic Orchestra, thePhilharmonia Orchestra, and theLondon Symphony Orchestra.^[100]

A staple of English easide culture, the quarrelsome couplePunch and Judy made their first recorded appearance in Covent Garden, London in 1662.^[101] The various episodes of Punch and Judy are performed in the spirit of outrageous comedy—often provoking shocked laughter—and are dominated by the anarchic clowning of Mr. Punch.^[102] Regarded as English cultural icons, they appeared at a significant period in English history, with Glyn Edwards stating:Pulcinella went down particularly well with Restoration English audiences, fun-starved after years ofPuritanism. We soon changed Punch's name, transformed him from a marionette to a hand puppet, and he became, really, a spirit of Britain – a subversive maverick, a kind of puppet equivalent to our political cartoons.^[101]

Thecircus is a tradition form of entertainment in England.Chipperfield's Circus dates back more than 300 years in Britain, making it one of the oldest family circus dynasties.^[103][19]Philip Astley is regarded as the father of themodern circus.^[19] Following his invention of the circus ring in 1768,Astley's Amphitheatre opened in London in 1773.^[19][104] As an equestrian master Astley had a skill for trick horse-riding, and when he added tumblers,tightrope-walkers,jugglers, performing dogs, and aclown to fill time between his own demonstrations – the modern circus was born.^[105][106] The Hughes Royal Circus was popular in London in the 1780s.Pablo Fanque's Circus Royal, among the most popular circuses of Victorian England, showcasedWilliam Kite.Joseph Grimaldi, the most celebrated ofclowns from England is considered the father of modern clowning.^[107]

Pantomime is amusical comedy stage production, designed for family entertainment. It is performed in theatres throughout England during the Christmas and New Year season. The art originated in the 18th century withJohn Weaver, a dance master and choreographer at theTheatre Royal, Drury Lane in London.^[108] Pantomime story lines and scripts are almost always based on traditional children's stories: some of the popular English stories featured includeJack and the Beanstalk,Peter Pan,Babes in the Wood,Goldilocks and the Three Bears andDick Whittington and His Cat. In 19th century England it acquired its present form, which includes songs, slapstick comedy and dancing, employing gender-crossing actors, combiningtopical humour with a story loosely based on a well-known fairy tale.^[108] It is a participatory form of theatre, in which the audience sing along with parts of the music and shout out phrases to the performers, such as "It's behind you".^[109]

Music hall is a type of theatrical leisure popular from the earlyVictorian era to the mid-20th century. The precursor to variety shows of today, music hall involved a mixture of popular songs, comedy, speciality acts and variety entertainment. English performers who honed their skills at pantomime and music hall sketches includeCharlie Chaplin,Stan Laurel,George Formby,Gracie Fields,Dan Leno,Gertrude Lawrence andHarry Champion.^[110][111] English music hall comedian and theatre impresarioFred Karno developed a form of sketch comedy without dialogue in the 1890s, and Chaplin and Laurel were among the music hall comedians who worked for him.^[112] A leading film producer stated; "Fred Karno is not only a genius, he is the man who originatedslapstick comedy. We in Hollywood owe much to him."^[113]

TheNotting Hill Carnival is an annual event that has taken place on the streets ofNotting Hill, London since 1966.^[114] Led by theBritish African-Caribbean community, the carnival has attracted around one million people, making it Britain's biggest street festival and one of the largest in the world.^[114] Also of note is the extensive impact of Irish culture for St. Patrick's Day. The largest St Patrick's Day Parade takes place inDigbeth,Birmingham, where there is a strong Irish community.

Ploughman's lunch with bread, cheese, salad, butter, a pork pie, and chutney

Pork pie

Sunday roast withroast beef andyorkshire pudding

Since theearly modern period the food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce.^[115] During theMiddle Ages and through theRenaissance period, English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation, though a decline began during theIndustrial Revolution with the move away from the land and increasing urbanisation of the populace. This has resulted in a traditional cuisine which tended to avoid strong flavours, such as garlic, and also complexsauces which were commonly associated withRoman Catholic Continental affiliations.^[116]

The cuisine of England has, however, recently undergone a revival, which has been recognised by food critics with some good ratings inRestaurant'sbest restaurant in the world charts.^[117] An early book of English recipes is theForme of Cury from the royal court ofRichard II.^[118] Traditional meals have ancient origins, such as bread, vegetables, cheese and onions,^[119] popular today as thePloughman's lunch (usually accompanied by butter,pickles,chutney,ham, fresh greensalad,boiled eggs, and apples),pottage andfrumenty; roasted and stewed meats;meat andgame pies; andfreshwater andsaltwater fish.^[120][121]

The last half century has seen significant changes in food manufacturing, retailing and consumption;^[122] an interest in different international cuisines; and the establishment of large restaurants, food outlets, coffee shops and supermarkets. However, distinctivelyEnglish dishes,^[123] artisanal production,delicatessens, home cooking and traditional establishments such aspubs,cafes andtearooms remain widespread. The 1990s saw the rise of thegastropub, serving traditional English dishes, andfarmers' markets, where English cheeses, breads, vegetables and other items are sold.^[124] Food culture in England has been taken more seriously since the 1960s due to writers and broadcasters such asDerek Cooper,Matthew Fort,Jonathan Meades andNigel Slater.^[125]

Roast beef is a food traditionally associated with the English; the link was made famous byHenry Fielding's patrioticballad "The Roast Beef of Old England", andWilliam Hogarth'spainting of the same name. Lamb is eaten especially at Easter.^[126] An English commentator wrote: "We have, throughout our history as a nation, had a weakness for meat in pastry which, while it is not unique, is a sort of hallmark of our taste."^[127] Pies appear in common Englishidioms such as "to eathumble pie", "as easy as pie", "a slice of the pie".Suet is an ingredient in many traditional Englishpuddings, such asNorfolk Plough Pudding.^[128]Dumplings made with flour,suet and seasonings^[129] andpearl barley^[130] may be cooked withcasseroles andstews. Potatoes are served roasted, boiled,baked,mashed, and aschips; popular varieties in England includingKing Edward,Jersey Royal, Charlotte potato,^[131] andMaris Piper.^[132]

Typical English main courses includelamb shank,^[133] pork and lambchops^[134] chicken and chips,gammon, egg and chips,steak and kidney pie and other variants ofsteak pie,chicken and mushroom pie,bacon and egg pie,^[135]shepherd's pie,^[136]cottage pie,^[137]fish pie,Lancashire hotpot,scouse,^[138]Beef Wellington,steak and kidney pudding, stuffedmarrow^[139]savoury bacon roll,boiled beef and carrots,^[140]rissoles,faggots,liver and bacon inonion gravy,^[141] Northumberlandpan haggerty,^[142]sausage and mash, andtoad in the hole.^[143] Butchers sell artisanal sausages, which are sometimes made from the meat of pedigree breeds such asGloucester Old Spot pigs. English sausages generally contain about 70 per cent meat, bread rusk and seasonings.^[144]Cumberland,Lincolnshire,Newmarket andOxford sausages are regional varieties.^[145] The best-known types of Englishham are fromWiltshire andYork.Game dealers sellvenison and wild game, such aspheasant,partridge andgrouse.^[146]Jugged rabbit andhare are traditional dishes.

ASunday roast^[147] comprises roast meat served withgravy, roast potatoes^[148] and vegetables such ascauliflower,cabbage, carrots,parsnips,swede,spring greens,spinach,runner beans,broad beans,leeks^[149] andgarden peas.Courgettes became widely available in the late 1960s andbroccoli first appeared in supermarkets in the late 1970s, initially as a seasonal item. Meats served as part of aSunday roast include beef, typically afore rib of beef, withYorkshire puddings andHorseradish sauce orEnglish mustard;^[150]lamb, typically aleg, shoulder or saddle of lamb, withmint sauce orredcurrant jelly; pork, typicallyleg, shoulder or loin of pork, withcrackling andapple sauce; honey-glazedgammon withcloves andparsley sauce; and poultry, such aschicken,duck (e.g.Aylesbury duck)^[151] andgoose.^[152] Consumption of chicken increased from the 1950s when the introduction ofpoultry factories, pioneered in England by JB Eastwood Ltd. owned by John Bealby Eastwood,^[153] significantly reduced the price.^[154]

AnEnglish Christmas dinner traditionally consists of roast goose, duck, pheasant or (now most often)turkey,^[155]cranberry sauce,bread sauce,stuffing,gravy,pigs in blankets,roast potatoes,chestnuts,brussels sprouts and other vegetables.^[102] It is sometimes accompanied by cookedgammon and usually followed byChristmas pudding, traditionally made onstir-up Sunday, withrum or brandy butter,mince pies filled withmincemeat andChristmas cake.^[2] Biscuits in the form ofgingerbread men are associated with Christmas, as are oranges, which are traditionally placed inChristmas stockings.

Fish and chips

Cornish pasty

Apple pie originated in England and English apple pie recipes go back to the time ofChaucer.

The most popular types of fish in England, mainly imported through seaside and coastal towns,^[156] aresalmon,cod,haddock,tuna andprawns.^[157]Fish and chips, sometimes served withmushy peas, are sold byfish and chip shops.^[158]Brixham in Devon has the highest value catch in England;^[159] other domestic fisheries includeCornwall andHastings.Dover sole is so named because it could historically be sourced from the fishing port ofDover.Potted shrimps,prawn cocktail,whitebait,scallops and slices ofsmoked salmon, such asLondon Cure,^[160] are starters served with a squeeze of lemon and brown bread.Oysters are cultivated along the east coast of England, for example atWhitstable.Crabs are particularly associated with the Norfolk town ofCromer.Samphire is collected in coastal areas and served with fish.^[161]

Light meals and snacks include greensalads served withsalad cream,^[162]cauliflower cheese,macaroni cheese,Welsh rarebit,^[163]fishcakes,baked potatoes,cheese on toast,beans on toast,mushrooms on toast,spare ribs, Cornishpasties,^[164]Scotch eggs,^[165]sausage rolls,pork pies,^[166]gala pie andbacon sandwiches. Thesandwich was named after theEarl of Sandwich^[167] and is very common as a lunchtime and picnic item with a wide range of fillings.^[168]Stotties, filled withham andpease pudding, are eaten particularly in the north-east of England.Asparagus is served with butter alone or with other ingredients such as eggs and ham; the English asparagus season runs from late April to the end of June.

A poll in 2011 found that the most popular soups in England weretomato,leek and potato,chicken,carrot and coriander,mushroom,pea and ham^[169] (sometimes known asLondon Particular), andbroccoli and stilton.^[170] Other traditional soups^[171] includevegetable,oxtail, cauliflower, artichoke,asparagus,spinach, parsnip, chestnut,watercress and chilledcucumber.Broth^[172] consists of meat and vegetables cooked in stock, sometimes thickened with barley or other cereals.^[173]Brown Windsor soup appeared in the 1953 Ealing film comedyThe Captain's Paradise and, although opinion is divided as to whether and for how long it actually existed in real life,^[174] recipes for it can now be found.Worcestershire sauce^[175] andbrown sauce, along withketchup, are distinctive English condiments.^[176]Bovril andMarmite are food pastes with a distinctive flavour.

English desserts include (bramley)apple pie,cherry pie,bread and butter pudding,bread pudding, fruitcrumble, fruitcobbler,Eve's pudding,Dorset apple cake,baked apple,gooseberry fool,sticky toffee pudding,treacle tart,treacle sponge pudding (made withgolden syrup),^[177]jam roly-poly,spotted dick,bakewell tart,trifle,rice pudding,eton mess,cheesecake^[178]Sussex pond pudding,summer pudding,Cabinet pudding, Englishcustard tart and, since the 1970s,lemon meringue pie andbanoffee pie.^[179] Chelsea Tart is a modern creation, popularized by restaurants like Fallow in London, that useswhey as a key ingredient.^[180] Hot puddings are often served withcustard.^[181] Some puddings, such asjelly,blancmange and chocolate sponge with chocolate custard, are associated withschool dinners.Fruit salad is a mixture of fresh fruit and canned fruits such aspeaches andapricots served in syrup. Fruits grown in England include apples, pears, plums, cherries, damsons, blackberries, black currants, gooseberries, raspberries, strawberries (often served with cream) andrhubarb.^[182]Ice creams are sometimes sold fromice cream vans which use distinctive chimes to attract customers^[183]

TheFull English breakfast,^[184] also referred to as 'bacon and eggs' or a 'fry up', typically comprises a choice from rashers ofback bacon,^[185]fried or scrambled eggs, porksausages,black pudding, grilled tomatoes,mushrooms,baked beans,fried bread,hash browns (which largely displacedbubble and squeak^[186] in the 1970s), and sometimeswhite pudding;^[187] usually served withtoast andjam,marmalade orhoney,^[188] and a cup of coffee or tea^[189] Alternative breakfast dishes includeboiled eggs^[190] with toastsoldiers,smoked salmon and scrambled eggs,poached eggs on toast, andCraster kippers.^[191]Porridge has long been eaten^[192] in England as abreakfast cereal.Fruit juice andyogurt are more recent additions.

Traditionally,High Tea would be had as a full evening meal, whereasAfternoon Tea was a lighter meal taken earlier in the afternoon only by the upper and middle classes of society, the idea being popularized byAnna Russell, Duchess of Bedford in the 1840s. Acream tea includes a pot oftea andscones (or buns called splits) served with jam andclotted cream fromDevon orCornwall,^[193] sometimes accompanied by daintyfinger sandwiches, with fillings such ascucumber andsmoked salmon.^[194]

Hot cross buns are traditionally eaten onGood Friday.

Tea

English cakes include a variety offruit cakes,^[195] such asGenoa cake, andsponge cakes, such asVictoria sponge,^[196]Madeira cake,Battenberg cake, chocolate sponge,coffee cake, lemon drizzle cake,fairy cakes andQueen cakes. Wartime rationing popularisedcarrot cake.^[197]Simnel cake is a special fruit cake associated withMothering Sunday and Easter.^[198] The traditionalwedding cake is made from a rich fruitcake.Parkin andtoffee apples are eaten onGuy Fawkes Night. Particular types ofgingerbread are associated withGrasmere,Market Drayton andCornwall.Eccles cakes andBanbury cakes are small round cakes filled with currants. Other items served for afternoon tea^[199] includeteacakes,crumpets and pikelets,^[200]English muffins,^[201]Cornish saffron cake and buns,tea loaf,malt loaf,seed cake,rock cakes,flapjacks,jam tarts,maids of honour tarts,doughnuts andlardy cakes.^[202]Lemon curd orhoney is another traditional English treat.^[203] Cheese scones are made using grated cheese with a strong flavour such asCheddar orRed Leicester. They may be served at afternoon tea as an alternative to jam, cake, small pastries and fruit tarts.^[204] Teas are typically served intearooms and hotels.

There are several types of fruited bun such ascurrant buns,Chelsea buns,Bath buns andhot cross buns (the latter markingGood Friday).^[205]English Pancakes are served onShrove Tuesday.^[206]

Types of Englishloaves,^[207] generally leavened bread made using white and/or wholemealbread flour milled from hard wheat, include farmhouse,^[208]cottage,^[209] bloomer^[210] cob,^[211] Coburg,^[212] crusty,^[213] plait,^[214] tin,^[215] andsandwich.^[216] Since the 1960s much commercially produced bread has used theChorleywood bread process, but from the 1990s there has been growing interest in artisanal and home baking^[217] as well assourdough bread.^[218]Bread rolls are most commonly round in shape and may be crusty or soft.^[219]

Consumption of dairy products in England has varied over time. Historically farms turned surplus milk into cheese and households made simplecream cheese andcottage cheese.^[220] The coming of the railways meant fresh milk could be transported quickly to the cities.^[221] Until the 1990s milk was generally delivered to customers in reusableglass milk bottles to the door by amilkman driving an electricmilk float, but by 2018 supermarket sales ofdifferent kinds of milk in plastic cartons and ofcream accounted for over 95% of the market.^[222] Yellow sweetcream (rather than lactic)^[223] butter is most common in England, in both salted and unsalted varieties.^[224] Commercial standardisation in the late 19th century^[225] led to a fairly large number of regional cheeses, including:

• Cheddar cheese^[226]
• Cheshire cheese
• Stilton cheese^[227]
• Wensleydale cheese
• Lancashire cheese
• Double Gloucester cheese^[228]
• Red Leicester cheese
• Shropshire Blue cheese
• Dorset Blue Vinney cheese
• Swaledale cheese
• Sage Derby cheese

English cheesemaking was restricted bywartime rationing and the number of dairy farms has diminished considerably since the abolition of theMilk Marketing Board in 1994,^[229] but many of the remaining producers sell added-value products such as artisanal cheese and farmhouseice cream^[230] and there are now over 750 different cheeses.^[231] Recent decades have seen English replicas of French cheeses, such asBrie,^[232]Camembert^[233] andchèvre.^[234] A number of British cheeses were accepted as having EUprotected geographical status. Homegrown artisanal cheeses are made by both long-established and new producers. These include hard cheeses such asLincolnshire Poacher, and semi-soft or soft cheeses, such asStinking Bishop,Cornish Yarg andOxford Blue.

Tea andbeer are typical and rather iconic drinks in England. Beer is used metaphorically to refer to pleasure, as incakes and ale and beer and skittles. Most tea drunk in England isblack tea.^[235] The types of single origin tea most commonly sold areAssam andDarjeeling from India,Ceylon (Sri Lanka) andLapsang Souchong from China.^[236]English breakfast tea is a strong blend that goes well with milk and sugar.Earl Grey tea is flavoured with bergamot. A cup of tea is often accompanied with abiscuit or piece of cake.

Whilsttea drinking andtearooms have diminished since the rise ofinstant coffee consumption in the 1970s^[237] and global chains ofcoffee shops in the 1990s,^[238] there has been a rapid growth in the number of breweries since the early 1970s.^[239] This was driven initially by a renewed interest incask ale, stimulated by theCampaign for Real Ale and itsGood Beer Guide, and more recently by the global influence of, particularly American,craft brewing.^[240]

Traditional English beer,^[241] unlikelager, is made with warm/top-fermenting yeasts and encompassesbitter andpale ale, other (less hoppy) types ofale,porter^[242] andstout.^[243]Pale ale, when served draught, gained the name ofbitter amongst drinkers in the first half of the 19th century because it was more hopped than other ales of the time such as mild, but is generally much less hopped than modernAmerican pale ale.^[244]India pale ale was exported to India but also consumed in England.^[245]Pale ale has long been sold in bottled form andBurton Pale Ale enjoyed particular popularity.^[246]Light ale is a low-alcohol bitter, often bottled.^[247] More recently the termsgolden ale^[248] andamber ale^[249] have been used to differentiate between pale ales of different shades. Other types of ale include strongBurton Ale,^[250]old ale,^[251]barley wine,^[252]mild ale,^[253] andbrown ale.^[254]

Bitter became the predominant English beer style in the 1950s, largely supplantingmild ale andBurton ale,^[255] and has accordingly been described as "the national drink of England".^[256] Research in 2014 found that although "beer fans divide equally between ale and lager drinkers … classic bitter is still the favourite for ale drinkers".^[257]Cobra Beer is an Indian-style lager that was created in 1989 to be drunk with food, which is now brewed inBurton upon Trent and sold in almost all Indian restaurants.Cider andperry is produced in theWest Country.^[258]Scrumpy refers to rough dry farmhouse cider.Shandy is beer mixed with a non-alcoholic drink, such as lemonade.^[259]Ginger beer is a usually sold as a non-alcoholic, carbonated drink flavoured with ginger, but is sometimes brewed (fermented).^[260]

Magna Carta stated there should be a single measure for ale.^[261] Inpubs beer and cider are serveddraught by thepint or half-pint, either in a straight glass or a dimpled glass tankard (known as ajug),^[262] and may be drunk with snack food (e.g.crisps, dry roasted or salted peanuts, andpork scratchings) or a meal^[263] However, the number of pubs fell by around a third between the early 1970s and 2017^[264] and since 2014 more beer has been sold in bottles by supermarkets andoff licences (off-trade) than in pubs (on-trade).^[265]Marston's Brewery and Greene King are the two largest brewers of premium cask and bottled beers, having grown by acquisition.Shepherd Neame Brewery is the largest family-owned brewery.^{[citation needed]}

Gin has been popular in England since the late 17th century and is mixed withtonic water, ice and a slice of lemon.^[266]Pimm's No. 1 Cup, a gin-based drink containing a mixture of herbs and liquors, is used to makepunch for summer social events.^[267] The rise ofmicro-distilleries in England at the start of the 21st century led to an upsurge in interest in bothgin andvodka. The south of England has seen the reintroduction of vineyards makingEnglish wine.^[268] Lemonbarley water, invented by Matthias Archibald Robinson in 1823,^[269] is made by pouring pearl barley water over the rind and/or pulp of a lemon and adding sugar to taste.The Wimbledon tennis championships are associated with this drink.^{[citation needed]}

English folklore developed over many centuries. Some of the characters and stories are present all over England, but most belong to specific regions. Common folkloric beings includepixies,giants,elves,trolls,goblins anddwarves. While many legends and folk-customs are thought to be ancient, for instance the tales featuringOffa of Angel andWayland the Smith,^[270] others date from after theNorman conquest of England:Robin Hood and hisMerry Men ofSherwood and their battles with theSheriff of Nottingham are perhaps the best known.^[271]

During theHigh Middle Ages tales originated from Brythonic traditions, notably theArthurian legend.^[272][273] Deriving from Welsh sources;King Arthur,Excalibur andMerlin, while theJersey poetWace introduced theKnights of the Round Table. These stories are most centrally brought together withinGeoffrey of Monmouth'sHistoria Regum Britanniae. Another early figure fromBritish tradition,King Cole, may have been based on a real figure from Sub-Roman Britain. Many of the tales andpseudo-histories make up part of the widerMatter of Britain, a collection of shared British folklore.

English fairy taleGoldilocks and the Three Bears is one of the most popular fairy tales in the English language.^[274] Some folk figures are based on semi-historical or historical people whose stories have been passed down the centuries;Lady Godiva for instance was said to have ridden naked on horseback throughCoventry,Hereward the Wake was a heroic English figure resisting the Norman invasion,Herne the Hunter is anequestrian ghost associated withWindsor Forest andGreat Park (whose tale bears the common European folkloric motif of theWild Hunt) andMother Shipton is the archetypal witch.^[275] The chivalrous bandit, such asDick Turpin, is a recurring character. There are various still surviving national and regional folk activities, such asMorris dancing,Maypole dancing,Rapper sword in the North East,Long Sword dance in Yorkshire,Mummers Plays,bottle-kicking in Leicestershire, andcheese-rolling atCooper's Hill.^[276] There is no official national costume, but a few costumes are well established, such as thePearly Kings and Queens associated withcockneys, theRoyal Guard, theMorris costume andBeefeaters.^[277] The utopian vision of a traditional England is sometimes referred to asMerry England.

Published in 1724,A General History of the Pyrates byCaptain Charles Johnson provided the standard account of the lives of many pirates in theGolden Age of Piracy.^[278] Many famous English pirates from the Golden Age hailed from theWest Country in the south west coast of England—the stereotypicalWest Country "pirate accent" was popularised by West Country nativeRobert Newton's portrayal ofLong John Silver in film.^[279][280] The concept of "walking the plank" was popularised byJ. M. Barrie's novel,Peter Pan, whereCaptain Hook's pirates helped define the archetype.^[281]Davy Jones' Locker where sailors or ship's remains are consigned to the bottom of the sea is first recorded byDaniel Defoe in 1726.^[282] Johnson's 1724 book gave a mythical status to famous English pirates such asBlackbeard andSamuel Bellamy.^[283]

TheGremlin is part ofRoyal Air force folklore dating from the 1920s, with gremlin being RAF slang for a mischievous creature that sabotages aircraft, meddling in the plane's equipment.^[284] Legendary figures from 19th century London whose tales have been romanticised includeSweeney Todd, the murderous barber ofFleet Street, and serial killerJack the Ripper. On 5 November, people in England make bonfires, set offfireworks and eattoffee apples incommemoration of the foiling ofGuy Fawkes'Gunpowder Plot, which became an annual event afterObservance of 5th November Act 1605 was passed.^[285]Guy Fawkes mask is an emblem foranti-establishment protest groups.^[286]

Witchcraft has featured in England for millennia. The use of acrystal ball to foretell the future is attributed to thedruids. In medieval folkloreKing Arthur's magician, the wizardMerlin, carried around a crystal ball for the same purpose.John Dee, consultant toElizabeth I, frequently used a crystal ball to communicate with the angels.^[287] Probably the most famous depiction of witchcraft in literature is inShakespeare's 1606 playMacbeth, featuring thethree witches and theircauldron. The ghost ofAnne Boleyn is a frequently reported ghost sighting in the UK. Differing accounts include seeing her ghost ride up toBlickling Hall in a coach drawn by a headless horseman, with her own head on her lap.^[288]

The English language originated in England and is the native language of theEnglish people. It is a member of theWest Germanic language family. The modern English language evolved fromMiddle English (the form of language in use by the English people from the 12th to the 15th century); Middle English was influenced lexically by Norman-French, Old French and Latin. In the Middle English period Latin was the language of administration and the nobility spoke Norman French. Middle English was itself derived from theOld English of the Anglo-Saxon period; in the Northern and Eastern parts of England the language of Danish settlers had influenced the language, a fact still evident in Northern English dialects.

There were once many different dialects of modernEnglish in England, which were recorded in projects such as theEnglish Dialect Dictionary (late 19th century) and theSurvey of English Dialects (mid 20th century), but many of these have passed out of common usage asStandard English has become more widespread through education, the media and socio-economic pressures.^[289]Received Pronunciation is considered the most prestigious accent in England. Despite the country's relatively small size, there are many distinctregional accents, and individuals with particularly strong accents may not be easily understood everywhere in the country.^[290]

Cornish, aCeltic language, is one of three existing Brythonic languages; its usage has been revived inCornwall. Historically, another Brythonic Celtic language,Cumbric, was spoken inCumbria inNorth West England.Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of theprinting press to London and theGreat Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of theBritish Empire, English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries. Through newspapers, books, the telegraph, the telephone, phonograph records, radio, satellite television, broadcasters (such as theBBC) and the Internet, as well as the emergence of the United States as a global superpower, Modern English has become theinternational language of business, science, communication,sports, aviation, and diplomacy.

In schools, language teaching is compulsory from the age of seven. French, German, and Spanish are commonly taught in all schools. Arabic, Bengali, Mandarin, Greek, Gujarati, Modern Hebrew, Italian, Japanese, Punjabi, Persian, Polish, Portuguese, Russian, Turkish, and Urdu are also taught.^[291]

English law is thelegal system ofEngland and Wales.^[293] Due to theBritish Empire, it has been exported across the world: it is the basis of common lawjurisprudence.^[294] The 18th century English jurist, judge and politician SirWilliam Blackstone is best known for his seminal work,Commentaries on the Laws of England, containing his formulation: "It is better that ten guilty persons escape than that one innocent suffer", a principle that government and the courts must err on the side of innocence, which has remained constant.^[295] SirWilliam Garrow ushered in theadversarial court system incommon law. He coined the phrase "presumed innocent until proven guilty", insisting that defendants' accusers and their evidence be thoroughly tested in court.^[296]

Major constitutional documents include:Magna Carta (foundation of the "great writ"Habeas corpus—safeguarding individual freedom against arbitrary state action), theBill of Rights 1689 (one provision grantingfreedom of speech in Parliament),Petition of Right,Habeas Corpus Act 1679 andParliament Acts 1911 and 1949. The juristAlbert Venn Dicey wrote that the British Habeas Corpus Acts "declare no principle and define no rights, but they are for practical purposes worth a hundred constitutional articles guaranteeing individual liberty".^[297] A strong advocate of the "unwritten constitution", Dicey stated English rights were embedded in English common law, and "the institutions and manners of the nation".^[298]

Christianity became the dominant religion in England in the 7th century. PolytheisticIndo-European religions, often referred to aspaganism, were practised before Christianity took hold. The most notable of these religions wereCeltic polytheism,Roman polytheism andAnglo-Saxon paganism, which was the religion of the early English people, orAnglo-Saxons, and which was in many ways very similar to the closely relatedNorse paganism practised by the Scandinavian peoples and that would later be introduced to England by theDanes.

Christianity was first established in Britain by theRoman Empire. According to legend, Christianity was introduced to Britain byJoseph of Arimathea, who came toGlastonbury. There is also a tradition ascribing this accomplishment toLucius of Britain. Archaeological evidence for Christian communities begins to appear in the 3rd and 4th centuries. TheRomano-British population after the withdrawal of the Roman legions remained mostly Christian. The Anglo-Saxon invaders and settlers who replaced them, founding the English nation, represented a stark return to pre-Christian religion for Britain. From the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons beginning in the 4th century until the arrival of the Augustinian Mission in 597 AD, England was entirely pagan, and the pre-Christian Germanic religion was practised openly in pockets throughout the country for many decades after this.

Christianity was reintroduced into England by missionaries from Scotland and from Continental Europe: the era ofAugustine of Canterbury, the firstArchbishop of Canterbury, and theCeltic Christian missionaries in the north (notablyAidan of Lindisfarne andCuthbert who came from Scotland) began in 597 AD. Early English Christian documents from this time include the 7th-century illuminatedLindisfarne Gospels and the historical accounts written byBede. TheDurham Gospels is aGospel book produced atLindisfarne.

In 1536, the Church of England split from Rome over the issue of the divorce (technically, the marriage annulment) of KingHenry VIII fromCatherine of Aragon. The split led to the emergence of a separate ecclesiastical authority. Later the influence of theReformation resulted in the Church of England adopting its distinctive reformed Catholic position known asAnglicanism which maintains episcopacy while adopting aLutheran theology. For more detail of this period see the following article:Timeline of the English Reformation.

Today, the Church of England is the established church in England. It regards itself as in continuity with the pre-Reformation state Catholic church (something the Roman Catholic Church does not accept) and has been a distinct Anglican church since the settlement underElizabeth I of England (with some disruption during the 17th-centuryCommonwealth of England period). The British Monarch is formallySupreme Governor of the Church of England. Its spiritual leader is theArchbishop of Canterbury, who is regarded by convention as the head of the worldwideAnglican Communion. In practice the Church of England is governed by theGeneral Synod of the Church of England, under the authority ofParliament. The Church of England's mission to spread the Gospel has seen the establishment of many churches in the Anglican Communion throughout the world particularly in theCommonwealth of Nations.

A strong tradition ofMethodism developed from the 18th century onward. The Methodist revival was started in England by a group of men includingJohn Wesley and his younger brotherCharles Wesley as a movement within the Church of England; it developed as a separate denomination after John Wesley's death. Other non-conformist Protestant traditions were also established in England.Saint George is recognised as thepatron saint of England. BeforeEdward III,Edmund the Martyr was recognised as England's patron saint, and theflag of England consists of theSaint George's Cross. However,Saint Alban is venerated by some as England's first Christian martyr.

Change ringing is the traditional method of bell ringing in English churches, co-ordinated by theCentral Council of Church Bell Ringers^[299] and promoted by societies such as theAncient Society of College Youths and theSociety of Royal Cumberland Youths. Change ringing is central toThe Nine Tailors byDorothy L. Sayers, voted the best crime novel of the 1930s by the British Crime Writers' Association.^[300]

In 17th-century England, thePuritans condemned the celebration of Christmas.^[301] In contrast, the Anglican Church "pressed for a more elaborate observance of feasts, penitential seasons, and saints' days. The calendar reform became a major point of tension between the Anglicans and Puritans."^[302] TheCatholic Church also responded, promoting the festival in a more religiously oriented form. KingCharles I of England directed his noblemen and gentry to return to their landed estates in midwinter to keep up their old-style Christmas generosity. Following theParliamentarian victory over Charles I during theEnglish Civil War, Puritan rulers banned Christmas in 1647.^[303]

Protests followed as pro-Christmas rioting broke out in several cities and for weeksCanterbury was controlled by the rioters, who decorated doorways withholly and shoutedroyalist slogans.^[301] The book,The Vindication of Christmas (London, 1652), argued against the Puritans, and makes note of Old English Christmas traditions, dinner, roast apples on the fire, card playing, dances with "plow-boys" and "maidservants", old Father Christmas and carol singing.^[304] TheRestoration ofKing Charles II in 1660 ended the ban. Following the Restoration,Poor Robin's Almanack contained the lines: "Now thanks to God for Charles return, / Whose absence made old Christmas mourn. / For then we scarcely did it know, / Whether it Christmas were or no."^[305]

In the early 19th century, writers imaginedTudor Christmas as a time of heartfelt celebration. In 1843,Charles Dickens wrote the novelA Christmas Carol that helped revive the "spirit" of Christmas and seasonal merriment.^[306][307] Dickens sought to construct Christmas as a family-centred festival of generosity, in contrast to the community-based and church-centred observations, the observance of which had dwindled during the late 18th century and early 19th century.^[308] Dickens influenced many aspects of Christmas that are celebrated today in Western culture, such as family gatherings,seasonal food and drink, dancing, games, and a festive generosity of spirit.^[309] A prominent phrase from the tale,"Merry Christmas", was popularized following the appearance of the story.^[310] The termScrooge became a synonym formiser, with"Bah! Humbug!" dismissive of the festive spirit.^[307]

The revival of theChristmas Carol began withWilliam Sandys'sChristmas Carols Ancient and Modern (1833), with the first appearance in print of "The First Noel", "I Saw Three Ships", "Hark the Herald Angels Sing" and "God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen". In 1843 the first commercialChristmas card was produced byHenry Cole leading to the exchange of festive greeting cards among the public.^[311]

The English have played a significant role in the development of science and engineering. Prominent English figures from the field of science and mathematics includeIsaac Newton,Michael Faraday,Charles Darwin,Robert Hooke,James Prescott Joule,John Dalton,Lord Rayleigh,J. J. Thomson,James Chadwick,Charles Babbage,George Boole,Alan Turing,Tim Berners-Lee,Paul Dirac,Stephen Hawking,Peter Higgs,Roger Penrose,John Horton Conway,Thomas Bayes,Arthur Cayley,G. H. Hardy,Oliver Heaviside,Andrew Wiles,Edward Jenner,Francis Crick,Joseph Lister,Joseph Priestley,Thomas Young,Christopher Wren andRichard Dawkins. Some experts claim that the earliest concept of ametric system was invented byJohn Wilkins, the first secretary of theRoyal Society, in 1668.^[313]

England has been a leading centre of theScientific Revolution since the 17th century.^[314] As the birthplace of theIndustrial Revolution, England was home to many significant inventors during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Famous English engineers includeIsambard Kingdom Brunel, best known for the creation of theGreat Western Railway, a series of famoussteamships, and numerous important bridges, hence revolutionising public transport and modern-day engineering.^[315]Thomas Newcomen'ssteam engine helped spawn the Industrial Revolution.^[316] It is home to theRoyal Institution, theRoyal Society, theGreenwich Observatory and its associatedmeridian.

The Father of Railways,George Stephenson, built the first public inter-city railway line in the world, theLiverpool and Manchester Railway, which opened in 1830. With his role in the marketing and manufacturing of the steam engine, and invention of modern coinage,Matthew Boulton (business partner ofJames Watt) is regarded as one of the most influential entrepreneurs in history.^[317] The physicianEdward Jenner'ssmallpox vaccine is said to have "saved more lives ... than were lost in all the wars of mankind since the beginning of recorded history."^{[318][319][320]}

Inventions and discoveries of the English include: thejet engine, the first industrialspinning machine,the first computer and the firstmodern computer, theWorld Wide Web along withHTML, the first successful humanblood transfusion, the motorisedvacuum cleaner,^[322] thelawn mower, theseat belt, thehovercraft, theelectric motor,steam engines, and theories such as the Darwinian theory ofevolution andatomic theory. Newton developed the ideas ofuniversal gravitation,Newtonian mechanics, andcalculus, andRobert Hooke his eponymously namedlaw of elasticity. Other inventions include the iron plate railway, thethermosiphon,tarmac, therubber band, themousetrap,"cat's eye",road marker, joint development of thelight bulb, steamlocomotives, the modernseed drill and many modern techniques and technologies used inprecision engineering.^[323]

TheRoyal Society, formallyThe Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge,^[324] is alearned society and the United Kingdom's nationalacademy of sciences. Founded on 28 November 1660, it was granted aroyal charter byKing Charles II as "The Royal Society".^[324] It is the oldest national scientific institution in the world.^[325] The society fulfils a number of roles: promoting science and its benefits, recognising excellence in science, supporting outstanding science, providing scientific advice for policy, fostering international and global co-operation, education and public engagement.^[326]

TheRoyal Institution of Great Britain was founded in 1799 by leading English scientists, includingHenry Cavendish and its first president,George Finch. Its foundational principles were diffusing the knowledge of, and facilitating the general introduction of useful mechanical inventions and improvements, as well as enhancing the application of science to the common purposes of life (including through teaching, courses of philosophical lectures, and experiments).^[327]

TheIndustrial Revolution began in England due to the social, economic and political changes implemented in the previous centuries. Whereasabsolute monarchy stayed the normal form of power execution through most parts of Europe, institutions ensured property rights and political safety to English people after theGlorious Revolution of 1688. Aided by these legal and cultural foundations, anentrepreneurial spirit and consumer revolution drove industrialisation in Britain.^[328] Under the newly formedKingdom of Great Britain, output from the Royal Society and otherEnglish initiatives combined with theScottish Enlightenment created excessive innovations in science and engineering.^[329] Domestically it drove theIndustrial Revolution, resulting in industrialised agriculture, manufacture, engineering and mining, as well as new and pioneering road, rail and water networks to facilitate their expansion and development.^[329] The opening of Northwest England'sBridgewater Canal in 1761 ushered in thecanal age in Britain.^[330][331] In 1825 the world's first permanent steam locomotive-hauled passenger railway – theStockton and Darlington Railway – opened to the public.^[330]

Geographical and natural resource advantages of Great Britain also contributed, with the country's extensive coastlines and many navigable rivers in an age when water was the easiest means of transportation along with its had high quality coal. According to British historianJeremy Black, "an unprecedented explosion of new ideas, and new technological inventions, transformed our use of energy, creating an increasingly industrial and urbanised country. Roads, railways and canals were built. Great cities appeared. Scores of factories and mills sprang up. Our landscape would never be the same again. It was a revolution that transformed not only the country, but the world itself."^[332]

The 18th century entrepreneurJosiah Wedgwood is credited with the industrialisation of the manufacture ofpottery. Meeting the demands of the consumer revolution and growth in wealth of the middle classes in Britain, Wedgwood created goods such astableware, which was starting to become a common feature on dining tables.^[332] Credited as the inventor of modern marketing, Wedgwood pioneereddirect mail,money back guarantees,travelling salesmen, carrying pattern boxes for display,self-service, free delivery,buy one get one free, and illustrated catalogues.^[333] Described as "natural capitalists" by theBBC, dynasties ofQuakers were successful in business and contributed the Industrial Revolution. This included ironmaking byAbraham Darby I and his family; banking, includingLloyds Banking Group (founded bySampson Lloyd),^[334]Barclays PLC,^[334]Backhouse's Bank andGurney's Bank; life assurance (Friends Provident); pharmaceuticals (Allen & Hanburys^[334]); the big three British chocolate companies,Cadbury,^[334]Fry's^[334] andRowntree^[334]); biscuit manufacturing (Huntley & Palmers^[334]); match manufacture (Bryant and May) and shoe manufacturing (Clarks). With his role in the marketing and manufacturing ofJames Watt's steam engine, and invention of moderncoinage,Matthew Boulton is regarded as one of the most influential entrepreneurs in history.^[335]

Other important English engineers and inventors in the Industrial Revolution include:George Stephenson,Richard Arkwright,Henry Maudslay andIsambard Kingdom Brunel. England has the oldest railway networks in the world; theStockton and Darlington Railway, opened in 1825, was the first public railway to use steam locomotives.^[336] Opened in 1863,London Underground is the world's first underground railway.^[337] Known as the "Father of Railways", Stephenson'srail gauge of 4 feet8+1⁄2 inches (1,435 mm) is thestandard gauge for most of the world's railways. Henry Maudsley's most influential invention was thescrew-cutting lathe, a machine which created uniformity inscrews and allowed for the application ofinterchangeable parts (a prerequisite formass production): it was a revolutionary development necessary for the Industrial Revolution.^[338][339] Brunel created theGreat Western Railway, as well as famous steamships including theSS Great Britain, the first propeller-driven ocean-going iron ship, andSS Great Eastern which laid the first lastingtransatlantic telegraph cable.^[340]

England has been the cradle of many very important philosophers who have contributed to the development of philosophical currents such asliberalism,utilitarianism,free thinking,enlightened thinking,empiricism,political philosophy andanalytical philosophy. The ideas of these thinkers have influenced transcendental historical events such as theAge of Enlightenment, the 1776Declaration of Independence of the United States, theFrench Revolution, and the 1948 United Nations'Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

• Thomas More (1478–1535) addressed the social problems of humanity in his summit work, Utopia (1516). The rest of his works have as a common thread the exaltation of idealism and the condemnation of tyranny.
• Francis Bacon (1561–1626) developed philosophical and scientific empiricism, which made him one of the pioneers of modern scientific thinking in developing the experimental scientific method. His most prominent philosophical works are The Advancement of Knowledge (1605), Novum Organum or Indications related to the Interpretation of Nature (1620).
• Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) was a very influential figure in the development of Western political philosophy through his work Leviathan (1651), a treatise on the nature of human beings and how societies are organized.
• John Locke (1632–1704) is considered the father of enlightened thought, one of the most influential thinkers of the Age of Enlightenment, and one of the founders of social contract theory, epistemology and political philosophy.
• Thomas Paine (1737–1809) had great influence through his writings on social democracy, claiming land ownership, freethinking, religion and slavery, in the American revolutionaries who led the independence of that country.
• Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) developed the utilitarian doctrine, embodied in his main work: Introduction to the principles of morality and legislation (1789). In addition, it left strengthened and appropriate the concept ofDeontology widely used in laws and codes of professional work that looks to the future.
• John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) was a representative of the classical and theoretical economic school of utilitarianism. In his work on freedom, he exposes his fundamental ideas about the limits of freedom of the individual and society.
• Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) was a philosopher, mathematician, logician and writer, winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature, and known for his influence on analytical philosophy in the early twentieth century.

England has a strong sporting heritage and many sports were codified by the English, and then spread worldwide, includingbadminton,cricket,croquet,football,field hockey,lawn tennis,rugby league,rugby union,table tennis,darts,bowls,squash,snooker,billiards, andthoroughbred horse racing. It has helped the development ofgolf, sailing andFormula One. In the late 18th century, the English game ofrounders was transported to theAmerican Colonies, where it evolved intobaseball. Association football,cricket,rugby union andrugby league are considered to be the national sports of England.

TheEngland national football team, whose home venue isWembley Stadium, playedScotland in the first ever international football match in 1872.^[342] Referred to as the "home of football" byFIFA, England hosted the1966 FIFA World Cup, and won the tournament by defeatingWest Germany 4–2 in thefinal, withGeoff Hurst scoring ahat-trick. With a British television audience peak of 32.30 million viewers, the final is themost watched television event ever in the UK.^[343]

Therules of football were first drafted in 1863 byEbenezer Cobb Morley, and England has the oldest football clubs in the world.^[344] At club level, England is recognised byFIFA as the birthplace of club football, due toSheffield F.C. founded in 1857 being the world's oldest club.^[345]The Football Association is the oldest governing body in the sport. TheFA Cup andThe Football League were the first cup and league competitions respectively. In the modern day, thePremier League is the world's most-watched football league, most lucrative, and amongst the elite.^[346] Its biggest clubs includeManchester United,Liverpool,Arsenal,Chelsea,Tottenham Hotspur andManchester City. In 2016,Leicester City, who were 5,000–1 outsiders at the start of the season, became champions.^[347] By some measures it was the greatest sporting upset ever: multiple bookmakers had never paid out at such long odds for any sport.^[347]

Cricket is generally thought to have been developed in the early medieval period among the farming and metalworking communities of theWeald.^[349] TheEngland cricket team is a composite England and Wales team. One of the game's top rivalries isThe Ashes series between England andAustralia, contested since 1882. The climax of the2005 Ashes was viewed by 7.4 million as it was available on terrestrial television.^[350] England has hosted fiveCricket World Cups (1975, 1979, 1983, 1999 and2019), winning the 2019 edition in a final regarded as one of the greatest one day internationals ever played.^[351]

England hosted theICC World Twenty20 in2009, winning this format in 2010 beating rivals Australia in the final. In the domestic competition, theCounty Championship,Yorkshire are by far the most successful club having won the competition 32 times outright and sharing it on 1 other occasion.^[352]Lord's Cricket Ground situated in London is sometimes referred to as the "Mecca of Cricket".^[353]

Rugby union originated inRugby School, Warwickshire in the early 19th century.^[354] TheEngland rugby union team won the2003 Rugby World Cup, withJonny Wilkinson scoring the winningdrop goal in the last minute of extra time against Australia. England was one of the host nations of the competition in the1991 Rugby World Cup and also hosted the2015 Rugby World Cup.^[355] The top level of club participation is theEnglish Premiership.Leicester Tigers,London Wasps,Bath Rugby andNorthampton Saints have had success in the Europe-wideHeineken Cup.

Rugby league was born inHuddersfield in 1895. Since 2008, theEngland national rugby league team has been a full test nation in lieu of theGreat Britain national rugby league team, which won threeWorld Cups. Club sides play inSuper League, the present-day embodiment of theRugby Football League Championship. Rugby League is most popular among towns in the northern English counties ofLancashire, Yorkshire andCumbria.^[356] The vast majority of English clubs in Super League are based in the north of England. Some of the most successful clubs includeWigan Warriors,Hull F.C.,St. Helens,Leeds Rhinos andHuddersfield Giants; the former three have all won theWorld Club Challenge previously.

William Penny Brookes was prominent in organising the format for the modernOlympic Games. In 1994, then President of theIOC,Juan Antonio Samaranch, laid a wreath on Brooke's grave, and said, "I came to pay homage and tribute to Dr Brookes, who really was the founder of the modern Olympic Games".^[357] London was the first major city to host theSummer Olympic Games three times, in1908,1948, and2012. England competes in theCommonwealth Games, held every four years. Birmingham hosted the2022 Commonwealth Games, the seventh time a UK country has hosted the event.

Sport England is the governing body responsible for distributing funds and providing strategic guidance for sporting activity in England. England, and othercountries of the United Kingdom, compete as a separate nations in some international sporting events. TheEngland cricket team actually represents England and Wales.^[358] However, in theOlympic Games, England competes as part of the Great Britain team. English supporters are now more likely to carry theCross of Saint George flag than the BritishUnion Flag.^[359]

Tennis was created in Birmingham in the late 19th century, andthe Wimbledon Championships is the oldest tennis tournament in the world, and widely considered the most prestigious.^[361] MajorWalter Clopton Wingfield is credited as being a pioneer of the game.^[362] The world's oldest tennis tournament, theWimbledon Championships, first occurred in 1877, and today the event takes place over two weeks in late June and early July.^[360] Created in the Tudor period in the court ofHenry VIII, the English dessert strawberries and cream is synonymous with the English summer, and is famously consumed at Wimbledon.^[363]

The first known modern rowing races began from competition among the professional watermen in England on the River Thames in London. Prizes for wager races were often offered by the London Guilds andLivery Companies or wealthy owners of riverside houses.^[364] The oldest surviving such race,Doggett's Coat and Badge was first contested in 1715 and is still held annually from London Bridge to Chelsea.^[365] During the 19th century these races were to become numerous and popular, attracting large crowds. Prize matches amongst professionals similarly became popular on other rivers throughout Great Britain in the 19th century, notably on the Tyne. Since 1829 an annualrowing race between theCambridge University Boat Club and theOxford University Boat Club, rowed between men's and women's open-weight eights on the River Thames, has taken place. It is also known as theUniversity Boat Race and the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race.

Golf has been prominent in England; due in part to its cultural and geographical ties to Scotland, thehome of Golf.^[366] There are both professional tours for men and women, in two main tours: thePGA Tour and theEuropean Tour. England has produced grand slam winners:Cyril Walker,Tony Jacklin,Nick Faldo, andJustin Rose in the men's andLaura Davies,Alison Nicholas, andKaren Stupples in the women's. The world's oldest golf tournament, and golf's first major isThe Open Championship, played both in England and Scotland. The biennial golf competition, theRyder Cup, is named after English businessmanSamuel Ryder who sponsored the event and donated the trophy.^[367] Nick Faldo is the most successful Ryder Cup player ever, having won the most points (25) of any player on either the European or US teams.^[368]

Inboxing, under theMarquess of Queensberry Rules, England has produced many world champions across the weight divisions internationally recognised by the governing bodies. World champions includeBob Fitzsimmons,Ted "Kid" Lewis,Randolph Turpin,Nigel Benn,Chris Eubank,Frank Bruno,Lennox Lewis,Ricky Hatton,Naseem Hamed,Amir Khan,Carl Froch, andDavid Haye.^[369] In women's boxing,Nicola Adams became the world's first woman to win an Olympic boxing gold medal at the2012 Summer Olympics. Originating in 17th and 18th-century England, thethoroughbred is a horse breed best known for its use inhorse racing. TheNational Hunt horse race theGrand National, is held annually atAintree Racecourse in early April. It is the most watched horse race in the UK, attracting casual observers, and three-time winnerRed Rum is the most successful racehorse in the event's history.^[370] Red Rum is also the best-known racehorse in the country.^[371]

The1950 British Grand Prix atSilverstone was the first race in the newly createdFormula One World Championship.^[372] Since then, England has produced some of the greatest drivers in the sport, including;John Surtees,Stirling Moss,Graham Hill (only driver to have won theTriple Crown),Nigel Mansell (only man to hold F1 and IndyCar titles at the same time),Damon Hill,Lewis Hamilton andJenson Button.^[373] It has manufactured some of the most technically advanced racing cars, and many of today's racing companies choose England as their base of operations for its engineering knowledge and organisation.McLaren Automotive,Williams F1,Team Lotus,Honda,Brawn GP,Benetton,Renault, andRed Bull Racing are all, or have been, located in the south of England. England also has a rich heritage inGrand Prix motorcycle racing, the premier championship of motorcycleroad racing, and produced several World Champions across all the various class of motorcycle:Mike Hailwood,John Surtees,Phil Read,Geoff Duke, andBarry Sheene.

Darts is a widely popular sport in England; a professional competitive sport, darts is a traditionalpub game. The sport is governed by theWorld Darts Federation, one of its member organisations is theBritish Darts Organisation (BDO), which annually stages theBDO World Darts Championship, the other being theProfessional Darts Corporation (PDC), which runs its own world championship atAlexandra Palace in London.Phil Taylor is widely regarded as the best darts player of all time, having won 187 professional tournaments, and a record 16World Championships.^[374][375]Trina Gulliver is the ten-time Women's World Professional Darts Champion of the British Darts Organisation. Another popular sport commonly associated with pub games isSnooker, and England has produced several world champions, includingSteve Davis andRonnie O'Sullivan.

The English are keen sailors and enjoy competitivesailing; founding and winning some of the world's most famous and respected international competitive tournaments across the various race formats, including thematch race, a regatta, and theAmerica's Cup. England has produced some of the world's greatest sailors, includingFrancis Chichester,Herbert Hasler,John Ridgway,Robin Knox-Johnston,Ellen MacArthur,Mike Golding,Paul Goodison, and the most successful Olympic sailor everBen Ainslie.

England has a long history of promoting education.^[376] During theMiddle Ages, schools were established to teachLatin grammar to the sons of the aristocracy destined for priesthood or monastic work with the ministry of government or the law. Two universities were established in affiliation with the church: theUniversity of Oxford, followed by theUniversity of Cambridge, to assist in the further training of the Catholic Christian clergy. There is evidence of teaching at Oxford as early as 1096, making it the oldest university in theEnglish-speaking world, theworld's second-oldest university in continuous operation and one of the most prestigiousacademic institutions in the world.^[377][378] Founded in 1209^[379] and granted aroyal charter byHenry III in 1231, theUniversity of Cambridge is the second-oldest university in theEnglish-speaking world and the world'sfourth-oldest surviving university, as well as one of the most prestigiousacademic institutions in the world.^[380][381] Apprenticeship was the main way for youths to enter practical occupations.^[382]

Private schools have a long history in England; some were set up before the tenth century. The oldest isKing's School, Canterbury, which was founded in 597. A group of these schools, much later, invoked the name "public school" to indicate that they were open to the public regardless of religious beliefs. In Tudor times,Edward VI reorganised grammar schools and instituted new ones so that there was a national system of "free grammar schools." In theory these were open to all, offering free tuition to those who could not afford to pay fees. In 1562 theStatute of Artificers and Apprentices was passed to regulate and protect the apprenticeship system, forbidding anyone from practising a trade or craft without first serving a 7-year period as an apprentice to a master.Guilds controlled many trades and used apprenticeships to control entry.^[384]

Most schools came under state control in theVictorian era. Initially, schools were categorised as infant schools, primary schools and secondary schools (split into more academic grammar schools and more vocationalSecondary modern schools). England has many independent (fee-paying) schools, some founded hundreds of years ago; independent secondary schools are known aspublic schools.Eton College,Harrow School,Shrewsbury School andRugby School are four of the best-known. The nature and peculiarities of these public schools have frequently featured in English literature.

State schools are government-funded schools which provide education free of charge to pupils. There are a number of categories of English state-funded schools including academy schools, grammar schools, community schools, faith schools, foundation schools, free schools, studio schools, university technical colleges, and a number of state boarding schools and city technology colleges. About one third of English state-funded schools are faith schools;^[385] i.e. affiliated with religious groups, most often from theChurch of England (approximately 2/3 of faith schools), or theRoman Catholic Church (around 3/10).^[386] A number of state-funded secondary schools are specialist schools, receiving extra funding to develop one or more subjects which the school specialises.

Most primary and secondary schools have compulsoryschool uniforms. Allowances are almost invariably made to accommodatereligious dress, including the Islamichijab andSikh bangle (kara). For each of the statutory curriculum subjects, theSecretary of State for Education is required to set out a Programme of Study which outlines the content and matters which must be taught in subjects at the relevant Key Stages.^[387] The most recently publishedNational Curriculum was introduced into schools in September 2014.

Grammar schools can be run by the local authority, a foundation body or an academy trust. They select their pupils based on academic ability.^[388] The original purpose ofmedieval grammar schools was the teaching ofLatin. Over time the curriculum was broadened, first to includeAncient Greek, and later English and otherEuropean languages,natural sciences, mathematics, history,geography, and other subjects. In areas children can enter a prestigious grammar school; there are also a number of isolated fully selective grammar schools and a few dozenpartially selective schools.^[389] The oldest state school in England isBeverley Grammar School, which was founded in 700 AD.^[390]

England's universities include some of the highest-ranked universities in the world;University of Cambridge,University of Oxford,Imperial College London,University College London andKing's College London are all ranked in the global top 30 in the 2018QS World University Rankings.^[391] TheLondon School of Economics has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research.^[392] TheLondon Business School is considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2010 its MBA programme was ranked best in the world by theFinancial Times.^[393]Academic degrees in England are usually split into classes: first class (1st), upper second class (2:1), lower second class (2:2), third (3rd), and unclassified.^[394]

TheSecretary of State for Education is responsible to Parliament for education.^[395] Standards in state schools are monitored and inspected by theOffice for Standards in Education, and in private schools by theIndependent Schools Inspectorate.^[396] In 2011, theTrends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) rated 13–14-year-old pupils in England 10th in the world formaths and 9th for science.^[397] TheProgramme for International Student Assessment coordinated by theOECD currently ranks the overall knowledge and skills of British 15-year-olds as 13th in the world in literacy, mathematics, and science with the average British student scoring 503.7, above theOECD average.^[398]

England has a rich television and broadcasting heritage. Although cinema, theatre, dance and live music are popular, the favourite pastime is watching television.^[399] The television channels includeBBC,ITV,Channel 4 andChannel 5 as well as other television channels specialising in entertainment, drama, culture, arts, science, travel, nature, and sports.^[400] Television networks includeUKTV channels such asU&Yesterday,U&Eden andU&Dave owned byBBC Studios.^[401] The broadcasterSky has several flagship channels, includingSky Arts,Sky Atlantic,Sky Cinema, andSky Nature.^[402]

TheBBC is a publicly funded broadcaster that has been in service since 1922, paid by taxation. Its mission is toinform, educate, and entertain.^[403]Channel 4 is similarly chartered to theBBC, with a remit to provide public service broadcasting and schools programs, however it runs commercial advertisements to provide a revenue stream. It produces a number of digital channels, branded asChannel 4, as well asMore4 andFilm4.^[404] TheRoyal Television Society is an educational charity for the discussion, and analysis of television in all its forms, past, present, and future. It is the oldest television society in the world.^[405]

Radio is dominated by theBBC, which operatesradio stations both at home and abroad. TheBBC World Service radio network is broadcast in 33 languages globally. Other radio broadcasters areHeart Radio,Classic FM, andSmooth Radio. The most popular radio station by number of listeners isBBC Radio 2, closely followed byBBC Radio 3,BBC Radio 4 andBBC Radio 1.BBC News,BBC Parliament,ITV News,Channel 4 News, andSky News are the country's most dominant news broadcasters. Radio, television, and broadcasting are regulated.^[406] Newspapers produced in England includeFinancial Times,The Guardian andThe Times.^[407]The Economist is also a widely read magazine covering current affairs, international business, politics, science and technology.

A large range of magazines are sold in England covering most interests and potential topics. English magazines and journals that have achieved worldwide circulation includeNature,New Scientist,The Spectator,Prospect,Apollo,NME, and theRadio Times. TheNational Trust andEnglish Heritage have their own monthly membership magazines devoted to photography, heritage, nature, wildlife, and arts. Other popular magazines includeBBC Gardeners' World,BBC History Magazine,BBC Science Focus,BBC Sky at Night,BBC Music,BBC Good Food,Country Life,The World of Interiors, andClassic & Sports Car.

Tudor rose

Royal Arms of England

The English use as their national flag the red cross ofSt George.St George's Day is marked as the day of the patron saint, and is also celebrated as the day of the birth and death of William Shakespeare.

In 1198,King Richard the Lionheart introduced thecoat of arms of England, depicting three lions.^[408] The three lions form the basis of several emblems of English national sports teams, such as theEngland national football team,^[409] and theEnglish national cricket team (though in blue rather than gold).

The Englishoak and theTudor rose are also English symbols; a modernised version of the rose is used by theEngland national rugby union team.

TheBarbary lion is a national animal of England. In the Middle Ages, the lions kept in the menagerie at the Tower of London were Barbary lions.^[410] English medieval warrior rulers with a reputation for bravery attracted the nickname "the Lion": the most famous example isRichard I of England, known as Richard the Lionheart. Lions are frequently depicted inEnglish heraldry, either as adevice onshields themselves, or assupporters. They also appear in sculpture, and sites of national importance. The lion is used as a symbol of English sporting teams, such as theEngland national cricket team.

Theoak is thenational tree of England,^[411] representing strength and endurance. TheRoyal Oak andOak Apple Day commemorate theescape of King Charles II from the grasps of the Parliamentarians (Roundheads) after theBattle of Worcester in 1651 (the last battle of theEnglish Civil War); he hid in an oak tree to avoid detection before making it safely into exile. TheMajor Oak is an 800–1000 year old oak inSherwood Forest, fabled as the principal hideout ofRobin Hood.^[412]

Therose is England'snational flower. Usually red,^[411] it is used, for instance, in the emblems of theEnglish Golf Union andEngland national rugby union team. TheTudor rose, which takes its name from theTudor dynasty, was adopted as a national emblem of England around the time of theWars of the Roses as a symbol of peace.^[413] It is asyncretic symbol in that it merged thewhite rose of theYorkists and thered rose of theLancastrians –cadet branches of thePlantagenets – who went to war over control of the royal house. It is also known as the Rose of England.^[414]

England has no officialanthem; however, the United Kingdom's "God Save the King" is commonly used. Other songs are sometimes used, including "Land of Hope and Glory" (used as England's anthem in theCommonwealth Games), "Jerusalem" (sung at international cricket matches), "Rule Britannia", and "I Vow to Thee, My Country". Certain groups are advocating the adoption of an official English anthem following similar adoptions in Scotland and Wales.^[415]

• List of museums in England
• Anglicisation
• Anglophile
• English understatement
• Goth subculture