Acult of personality, or acult of the leader,[1] is the result of an effort to create an idealized and heroic image of an admirable leader, often through unquestioningflattery andpraise.[2]
The spread of democratic and secular ideas in Europe and North America in the 18th and 19th centuries made it increasingly difficult for monarchs to preserve this aura, thoughNapoleon III,[3] andQueen Victoria[4] appreciated its perpetuation in theircarte-de-visite portraits which proliferated, circulated and were collected in the 19th century.[5][6][7]
The subsequent development of mass media, such as radio, enabled political leaders to project a positive image of themselves onto the masses as never before. It was from these circumstances in the 20th century that the most notorious personality cults arose. Frequently, these cults are a form ofpolitical religion.[8]
In contemporary politics,Trumpism has been described by academics as a cult of personality for its unquestioning loyalty and idealization ofDonald Trump,[9][10] such as this 2025propaganda poster of Trumpsatirizing himself as amonarch.
The advent of theInternet and theWorld Wide Web in the 21st century has renewed the personality cult phenomenon.Disinformation via social media platforms and thetwenty-four hour news cycle have enabled the widespread dissemination and acceptance of deceptive information and propaganda.[11] As a result, personality cults have grown and remained popular in many places, corresponding with a markedrise in authoritarian government across the world.[12]
The term "cult of personality" likely appeared in English around 1800–1850, along with the French and German versions of the term.[13] It initially had no political connotations, but was instead closely related to theRomanticist "cult of genius".[13] The first known political use of the phrase appeared in a letter fromKarl Marx to German political worker Wilhelm Blos dated to November 10, 1877:[13]
Neither of us cares a straw of popularity. Let me cite one proof of this: such was my aversion to the personality cult [orig.Personenkultus] that at the time of the International, when plagued by numerous moves ... to accord me public honor, I never allowed one of these to enter the domain of publicity ...[13][14]
1859carte de visite ofNapoleon III byDisdéri, which popularized the carte-de-visite format
There are various views about what constitutes a cult of personality in aleader. HistorianJan Plamper wrote that modern-day personality cults display five characteristics that set them apart from "their predecessors": The cults are secular and "anchored in popular sovereignty"; their objects are all males; they target the entire population, not only the well-to-do or just the ruling class; they use mass media; they exist where the mass media can be controlled enough to inhibit the introduction of "rival cults".[15]
In his 2013 paper, "What is character and why it really does matter", Thomas A. Wright stated, "The cult of personality phenomenon refers to the idealized, even god-like, public image of an individual consciously shaped and molded through constant propaganda and media exposure. As a result, one is able to manipulate others based entirely on the influence of public personality ... the cult of personality perspective focuses on the often shallow, external images that many public figures cultivate to create an idealized and heroic image."[16]
Adrian Teodor Popan defined a cult of personality as a "quantitatively exaggerated and qualitatively extravagant public demonstration of praise of the leader." He also identified three causal "necessary, but not sufficient, structural conditions, and a path-dependent chain of events which, together, lead to the cult formation: a particular combination ofpatrimonialism andclientelism, lack of dissidence, and systematic falsification pervading the society's culture."[17]
One underlying characteristic, as explained by John Pittman, is the nature of the cult of personalities to be a patriarch. The idea of the cult of personalities that coincides with the Marxist movements gains popular footing among the men in power with the idea that they would be the "fathers of the people".[according to whom?] By the end of the 1920s, the male features of the cults became more extreme. Pittman identifies that these features became roles including the "formal role for a [male] 'great leader' as a cultural focus of the apparatus of the regime: reliance on top-down 'administrative measures': and a pyramidal structure of authority" which was created by a single ideal.[18]
The twentieth century brought technological advancements that made it possible for regimes to package propaganda in the form ofradio broadcasts,films, and later content on the internet.[citation needed]
Writing in 2013, Thomas A. Wright observed that "[i]t is becoming evident that thecharismatic leader, especially in politics, has increasingly become the product of media and self-exposure."[16] Focusing on the media in the United States,Robert N. Bellah added, "It is hard to determine the extent to which the media reflect the cult of personality in American politics and to what extent they have created it. Surely they did not create it all alone, but just as surely they have contributed to it. In any case, American politics is dominated by the personalities of political leaders to an extent rare in the modern world ... in the personalized politics of recent years the 'charisma' of the leader may be almost entirely a product of media exposure."[19]
Jan Plamper argues whileNapoleon III made some innovations inFrance, it wasBenito Mussolini in Italy in the 1920s who originated the model of dictator-as-cult-figure that was emulated by Hitler, Stalin and the others, using the propaganda powers of atotalitarian state.[20]
Pierre du Bois de Dunilac argues that the Stalin cult was elaborately constructed to legitimize his rule. Many deliberate distortions and falsehoods were used.[21] TheKremlin refused access to archival records that might reveal the truth, and key documents were destroyed. Photographs were altered and documents were invented.[22] People who knew Stalin were forced to provide "official" accounts to meet the ideological demands of the cult, especially as Stalin himself presented it in 1938 inShort Course on the History of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks), which became the official history.[23]
HistorianDavid L. Hoffmann states "The Stalin cult was a central element ofStalinism, and as such it was one of the most salient features of Soviet rule ... Many scholars of Stalinism cite the cult as integral to Stalin's power or as evidence of Stalin's megalomania."[24]
In Latin America,Cas Mudde and Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser link the "cult of the leader" to the concept of thecaudillo, a strong leader "who exercises a power that is independent of any office and free of any constraint." Thesepopuliststrongmen are portrayed as "masculine and potentially violent" and enhance their authority through the use of the cult of personality. Mudde and Kaltwasser trace the linkage back toJuan Perón ofArgentina.[1]
Juan Perón, who was elected three times asPresident of Argentina, and his second wife,Eva "Evita" Perón, were immensely popular among many of the Argentine people, and to this day they are still considered icons by the leadingJusticialist Party. In contrast, academics and detractors often considered him ademagogue and a dictator. Perón sympathised with theAxis powers when he was a colonel and Minister of War[25] and even served as a diplomatic envoy toFascist Italy. During his regime he kept close ties withFrancoist Spain. He ferociously persecuted dissents and potential political rivals, as political arrests were common during his first two terms. He eroded therepublican principles of the country as a way to stay in power and forced statewide censorship on most media.[26] Following his election, he built a personality cult around both himself and his wife so pervasive it is still a part of Argentina's current political life.[27]
During Perón's regime, schools were forced to read Evita's biographyLa Razón de mi Vida, union and government jobs were only given to those who could prove themselves to be a fervent Peronist, newspapers were censored and television and radio networks were nationalized, and only state media was allowed. He often showed contempt for any opponents, regularly characterizing them as traitors and agents of foreign powers. Those who did not fall in line or were perceived as a threat to Perón's political power were subject to losing their jobs, threats, violence and harassment. Perón dismissed over 20,000 university professors and faculty members from all major public education institutions.[28] Universities were then intervened, the faculty was pressured to get in line and those who resisted wereblacklisted, dismissed or exiled. Numerous prominent cultural and intellectual figures were imprisoned.[29] Thousands of artists, scientists, writers and academics left the country, migrated to North America or Europe. Union leaders and political rivals were arrested and tortured for years[30][31] and were only released after Perón was deposed.[32]
Mujibism initially began as the political ideology ofSheikh Mujibur Rahman ("Mujib", 1920-1975), who ledBangladesh's secession from Pakistan in 1971. From 2008 onwards, Mujib's daughter,Sheikh Hasina, gradually converted Mujibism into a cult of personality around her father.[33][34] After being pushed to the sidelines by two successive military dictators —Ziaur Rehman (who founded theBangladesh Nationalist Party) andHussain Muhammad Ershad (who founded theBangladesh National Party) — the figure of the late Mujib returned to dominate public consciousness from2008 under theAwami League government led by Hasina. Hasina has been criticised for overemphasising the role of her father and of the Awami League in securing Bangladeshi independence at the cost of sidelining other prominent figures and political parties of the time.[35] Hasina had amended the constitution to make the presence of Mujib's portrait mandatory in every school, government office and diplomatic mission of the country; and made it illegal to criticise Mujib, his ideals or his deeds, especially the one-partyBAKSAL regime (1972–75) headed by him, through writing, speech or electronic media. Many events commemorating the birth-centenary ofBangabandhu ('Friend of Bengal' inBengali, the honorific unofficial title given to Mujib in his lifetime) were launched by the Hasina administration, including an officialbiopic in collaboration with the Indian government. The Hasina government converted Mujib's residence in the capital city ofDhaka, wherehe and his family were assassinated by mutinous military personnel in 1975, into amemorial museum. Hasina designated the day of Mujib's assassination as theNational Day of Mourning.[36][37] The Hasina government also made the birthdays of Mujib, his wifeSheikh Fazilatunessa, eldest sonSheikh Kamal and youngest sonSheikh Russel as official government holidays, alongside March 7 (on that day in 1971, Mujib declared Bangladesh's secession at aspeech in Dhaka). Under Hasina's rule, the country was dotted with numerous statues of Mujib alongside several roads and prominent institutions named after him. Critics state that Hasina utilised the personality cult around her father to justify her own authoritarianism, crackdown on political dissent anddemocratic backsliding of the country.[38] Following theviolent overthrow of Sheikh Hasina in 2024, the cult of personality around Mujib is being systematically dismantled.[39][40]
The Cambodian leaderPol Pot ("Saloth Sar") became "Brother Number One" as the secretive public figure and the regime did not cultivate a cult of personality around him. Instead, he and theKhmer Rouge used the faceless, abstract concept ofAngkar (អង្គការ angkaa), a Khmer word for "Organization" to represent the revolutionary party in Cambodia. Following theFall of Phnom Penh and the end of theCambodian Civil War on 17 April 1975, Angkar was presented as the supreme, all-knowing authority to whom all loyalty was owed as it sees everything, was used to assert the organization's total control overDemocratic Kampuchea as its constitution on 5 January 1976. Because of the highest authority, Angkar was part of the regime's extreme secrecy ofMaoist ideology. TheCambodian People's Party (CPP) won all 125 seats in the2018 general election, effectively turning the country into asingle-party state as part of the political landscape has undergone a dynastic transition ofHun Sen (who has been in power asPrime Minister from 1985 until 2023) and his sonHun Manet. Sen remained president of the ruling Cambodian People's Party (CPP), which political analysts say gives him ultimate control over the country, while his son Hun Manet became the next Prime Minister since August 2023, but the CPP itself was anentity, not a personality cult.
Mao Zedong's cult of personality was a prominent part ofChairmanMao Zedong'srule over thePeople's Republic of China fromhis rise in 1949 untilhis death in 1976.Mass media,propaganda and a series of other techniques were used by the state to elevate Mao Zedong's status to that of an infallible heroic leader, who could stand up againstThe West, and guide China to become a beacon ofCommunism. Mao himself, however, publicly criticized the personality cult which was formed around him.[41]
During the period of theCultural Revolution, Mao's personality cult soared to an unprecedented height. Mao's face was firmly established on the front page ofPeople's Daily, where a column of his quotes was also printed every day. Mao's Selected Works were later printed in even greater circulation; the number of his portraits (1.2 billion) was more than the inhabitants in China. And soonChairman Mao badges began to appear; in total, about 4.8 billion were manufactured.[42] Every Chinese citizen was presented with theLittle Red Book – a selection of quotes from Mao. It was prescribed to be carried everywhere and displayed at all public events, and citizens were expected to quote the contents of the book daily.[43] Mao himself believed that the situation had gone out of hand, and in a conversation withEdgar Snow in 1970, he denounced the titles of "Great Leader, Great Supreme Commander, Great Helmsman" and insisted on only being called "teacher".[44] Admiration for Mao Zedong has remained widespread in China in spite of somewhat general knowledge of his actions. In December 2013, aGlobal Times poll revealed that over 85% of Chinese viewed Mao's achievements as outweighing his mistakes.[45]
Chiang Kai-shek had acult of personality. His portraits were commonly displayed in private homes and they were also commonly displayed in public on the streets.[46][47] When the Muslim general and warlordMa Lin was interviewed, he was described as having "high admiration for and unwavering loyalty to Chiang Kai-shek".[48]
After the Cultural Revolution,Deng Xiaoping and others launched the "Boluan Fanzheng" program which invalidated the Cultural Revolution and abandoned (and forbade) the use of a personality cult.[49][50][51]
Longtime dictator of theDominican RepublicRafael Trujillo (ruled 1930–1961) was the center of a large personality cult. The nation's capital city, its highest peak, and a province were renamed for him. Statues of "El Jefe" were mass-produced and erected across the country, and bridges and public buildings were named in his honor. Automobile license plates included slogans such as "¡Viva Trujillo!" and "Año Del Benefactor De La Patria" (Year of the Benefactor of the Nation). An electric sign was erected in Ciudad Trujillo so that "Dios y Trujillo" could be seen at night as well as in the day. Eventually, even churches were required to post the slogan "Dios en el cielo, Trujillo en la tierra" (God in Heaven, Trujillo on Earth). As time went on, the order of the phrases was reversed (Trujillo on Earth, God in Heaven).[55]
François Duvalier, also known as Papa Doc, was a Haitian politician who served as thepresident of Haiti from 1957 until his death in 1971. He was elected president in the1957 general election on apopulist andblack nationalist platform. After thwartinga military coup d'état in 1958, his regime rapidly became moreautocratic anddespotic. An undercover governmentdeath squad, theTonton Macoute (Haitian Creole:Tonton Makout), indiscriminately tortured or killed Duvalier's opponents; the Tonton Macoute was thought to be so pervasive that Haitians became highly fearful of expressing any form of dissent, even in private. Duvalier further sought to solidify his rule by incorporating elements ofHaitian mythology into a personality cult.[56]
The cult ofMiklós Horthy, who became the head of state of theKingdom of Hungary after thedissolution of Austria-Hungary andcounter-revolutionary terror afterWorld War I, was one of the first personality cults to be established in interwar Europe. Horthy was presented as the only person capable of achieving the national goals and restoring the lost national glory. Horthy built the Hungarian national identity around Christianity, and in order to maintain his own cult, Horthy actively manipulated Christian symbols and concepts, namely resurrection, rebirth, salvation, the Passion of the Christ, selectness, the promised land, and references to the will of divine providence for justifying the Horthy's rule.[57]
"Kids, you have to loveBenito Mussolini. He always works for the good of the Fatherland and the Italian people. You have heard this many times, from your dad, mom, or teacher: If Italy is now far more powerful than before, we owe it to Him." (1936 first-gradetextbook)
Benito Mussolini was portrayed as the embodiment ofItalian Fascism and as a result, he was keen to be seen as such.[58] Mussolini was styled by other Italian fascists asIl Duce ("The Leader"). Since Mussolini was represented as an almost omniscient leader, a common saying in Italy during Mussolini's rule was "The Duce is always right" (Italian:Il Duce ha sempre ragione).[59] Mussolini became a unifying force in Italy in order for ordinary Italians to put their difference to one side with local officials. The personality cult surrounding Mussolini became a way for him to justify his personal rule and it acted as a way to enable social and political integration.
Mussolini's military service inWorld War I and survival of failed assassination attempts were used to convey a mysterious aura around him.[60] Fascist propaganda stated that Mussolini's body had been pierced by shrapnel just likeSt. Sebastian had been pierced by arrows, the difference being that Mussolini had survived this ordeal.[60] Mussolini was also compared toSt. Francis of Assisi, who had, like Mussolini, "suffered and sacrificed himself for others".[61]
The press were given instructions on what and what not to write about Mussolini.[58] Mussolini himself authorized which photographs of him were allowed to be published and rejected any photographs which made him appear weak or less prominent than he wanted to be portrayed as in a particular group.[62]
Italy's war against Ethiopia (1935–37) was portrayed in propaganda as a revival of theRoman Empire, with Mussolini as the first Roman emperorAugustus.[63] To improve his own image, as well as the image of Fascism in theArab world, Mussolini declared himself to be the "Protector ofIslam" during an official visit toLibya in 1937.[64]
Lithograph printed in 1930s, heavily plagiarizing from the original one, with Gandhi posing as Shiva, protectingBharat Mata (who replaces Markandeya in this version) from the snares of a British colonial officer, who is labelled as Yama.
During the days of the freedom struggle,Mahatma Gandhi had a cult-like following amongst the people of India. Congress leaders likeChittaranjan Das andSubhash Chandra Bose who opposed Gandhi's methods, found themselves sidelined within the party. Theassassination of Gandhi in 1948 led to widespread violence againstMarathi Brahmins by his followers. After Gandhi's death, his cult was eclipsed by another personality cult that had developed around India's firstprime ministerJawaharlal Nehru.[65]C Rajagopalachari criticized the personality cult surrounding Nehru, saying that there should be an opposition group within the Congress. Rajagopalachari later formed theeconomically right-wingSwatantra Party in opposition to Nehru'ssocialist economic view.[66] The expression 'Nehruvian consensus' reflects the dominance of Nehruvian ideals, a product of Nehru's personality cult and the associated statism, i.e. the overarching faith in the state and the leadership.[67] However, Nehru himself actively discouraged the creation of a cult of personality around him.[68] He wrote an essay titled 'Rashtrapati' in 1937 published in theModern Review warning people about dictatorship and emphasizing the value of questioning leaders.[69]
Current Indian Prime MinisterNarendra Modi is often criticized for creating a personality cult around him.[73][74] Despite some setbacks and criticism,[75][76][77] Modi's charisma and popularity was a key factor that helped theBharatiya Janata Party (BJP) return to power in the2019 general elections.[78]Shivraj Singh Chouhan, the chief minister of the country'ssecond largest state, said in 2022, "He is superhuman and has traces of God in him."[79] The Opposition often accused Modi for spreading propaganda using popular media such as movies, television and web series. Modi is often accused of having narcissist traits.[80][81] In 2015, Modi wore a suit which has his name embroidered all over it in fine letters like a Hindunamavali (A sheet of cloth printed all over with the names of Hindu gods and goddesses usually worn byHindu priests duringpuja) while greeting US presidentBarack Obama during his bilateral visit to India.[82] This suit was auctioned that year, selling at a record amount of 43.1 million Indian rupees, thereby earning theGuinness World Records for the most expensive suit.[83] In 2019, abiographical film of Modi was released, which was heavily criticized for itshagiographical nature.[84][85][86][87] In 2021, Modi named theworld's largest cricket stadium after himself. During the2024 general elections, Modi tried to divinise himself in an interview, in which he stated that he viewed himself to be sent directly byGod to serve a special purpose on Earth.[88] BJP spokespersonSambit Patra while campaigning in theHindu holy city ofPuri stated that evenJagannath (the form of the Hindu godVishnu which is venerated there) worships Modi.[89] The BJP is also stated to have created a cult of personality aroundHindu Mahasabha leaderV. D. Savarkar and Gandhi's assassinNathuram Godse to oppose the dominance ofGandhian philosophy in Indian society.[90][91]
One study claims that India's political culture since the decline of the Congress' single-handed dominance over national politics from the 1990s onwards as a fallout of theRam Janmabhoomi movement andMandal Commission protests has paved way for personality cults centered around leaders of the small regional parties,[92] derived fromhero-worship of sportspersons and film industry celebrities[93] and the concept ofbhakti,[94] which in turn has fosterednepotism, cronyism and sycophancy. Among these leaders,Tamil NaduChief MinisterJ. Jayalalitha had one of the most extensive ones. She was widely referred by leaders and members ofher party asAmma ('mother' inTamil, also used to refer to Hindu goddesses) and would prostrate themselves before her. She would be regularly publicly applauded with Tamil titles likeMakkalin Mudhalvar (people's chief minister),Puratchi Thalaivi (revolutionary female leader),Thanga Thalaivi (golden female leader) etc. by her cadres. Her government provided various kinds of subsidised goods under the brand name ofAmma. Widespread violence broke out throughout the state when she was arrested oncharges of corruption. A huge wave of public grief swept all over the state, with some even committing suicide, following her death in 2016.[95][96][97] Another leader,Mayawati, was also known for attempting to foster a cult of personality during her tenure as the Chief Minister of India'smost populous state by getting constructed large statues of herself and the elephant (which was the electoral symbol ofher party) that were installed in public parks at the cost of government exchequer.[98][99]
Historical personalities are also deified to the level of cult worship long after their lifetimes which is utilised by politicians to woo their followers for electoral purposes. Prominent examples are the cult ofShivaji inMaharashtra[100] and the cult of Dr.B. R. Ambedkar amongDalits.[101][102]
Critics ofBenjamin Netanyahu, the current and the longest serving Prime Minister of Israel and leader of the opposition when not in power, and some observers, have described him as enjoying a personality cult. A study claims that Netanyahu has created popularity and maintained power by setting a narrative in which Iran was acquiring the capacity to annihilate Israel and "wreak havoc upon the Western world" and in which the Jews are again threatened by an antisemitic regime unless Israel leads a preventative response, while constructing a cult of personality and promising security to all Israelis, and thus, solidifying his support through an "orchestrated unity", which includes the ritual of the leader offering security in return for the people's exchange of gratitude.[103]Isabel Kershner writes that Netanyahu's "most loyal base" "had built something of a personality cult around him", while the two main political blocks of Israel center on his personality and can be described as "Only Bibi" and "Anyone but Bibi".[104] Critics which accused Netanyahu of a personality cult include the opinion journalistsGershon Baskin[105] and Pamela Peled[106] ofThe Jerusalem Post.
Starting in the 1920s, during the early years of theNazi Party,Nazi propaganda began to depict the Nazi leaderAdolf Hitler as ademagogue figure who was the almighty defender and savior of Germany. After theend of World War I (1918) and theTreaty of Versailles (1919), the German people experienced turmoil under theWeimar Republic, and, according to Nazi propaganda, only Hitler could save them and restore Germany's greatness, which in turn gave rise to the "Führer-cult".[107] During the five election campaigns in 1932, the Nazi newspaperVölkischer Beobachter portrayed Hitler as a man who had a mass movement united behind him, a man with one mission — to solely save Germany as the 'Leader of the coming Germany'.[108] TheNight of the Long Knives in 1934 – after which Hitler referred to himself as being single-handedly "responsible for the fate of the German people" – also helped to reinforce the myth that Hitler was the sole protector of theVolksgemeinschaft, the ethnic community of the German people.[109]
Nazi Propaganda MinisterJoseph Goebbels cultivated an image of Hitler as a "heroic genius".[107] The myth also gave rise to the saying and concept, "If only the Führer knew". Germans thought that problems which they ascribed to the Nazi hierarchy would not have occurred if Hitler had been aware of the situation; thus Nazi bigwigs were blamed, and Hitler escaped criticism.[109] British historianIan Kershaw published his bookThe "Hitler Myth": Image and Reality in the Third Reich in 1987 and wrote:
Hitler stood for at least some things they [German people] admired, and for many had become the symbol and embodiment of the national revival which the Third Reich had in many respects been perceived to accomplish.[110]
During the early 1930s, the myth was given credence due to Hitler's perceived ability to revive theGerman economy during theGreat Depression. However,Albert Speer wrote that by 1939, the myth was under threat and the Nazis had to organize cheering crowds to turn up to events. Speer wrote:
The shift in the mood of the population, the drooping morale which began to be felt throughout Germany in 1939, was evident in the necessity to organize cheering crowds where two years earlier Hitler had been able to count on spontaneity. What is more, he himself had meanwhile moved away from the admiring masses. He tended to be angry and impatient more often than in the past when, as still occasionally happened, a crowd onWilhelmsplatz began clamoring for him to appear. Two years before he had often stepped out on the "historic balcony." Now he sometimes snapped at his adjutants when they came to him with the request that he show himself: "Stop bothering me with that!"[111]
The myth helped to unite the German people duringWorld War II, especially against theSoviet Union and theWestern Allies. During Hitler's early victories againstPoland andWestern Europe the myth was at its peak, but when it became obvious to most Germans that the war was lost then the myth was exposed and Hitler's popularity declined. A report is given in the littleBavarian town ofMarkt Schellenberg on March 11, 1945:
When the leader of theWehrmacht unit at the end of his speech called for aSieg Heil for the Führer, it was returned neither by the Wehrmacht present, nor by theVolkssturm, nor by the spectators of the civilian population who had turned up. This silence of the masses ... probably reflects better than anything else, the attitudes of the population.[112]
The pervasiveness and the extreme nature of North Korea's personality cult surpassesthose of Joseph Stalin andMao Zedong.[117] The cult is also marked by the intensity of the people's feelings for and devotion to their leaders,[118] and the key role played by a Confucianized ideology offamilism both in maintaining the cult and thereby in sustaining the regime itself. The North Korean cult of personality is a large part ofJuche andtotalitarianism.
Yakov Novichenko, a Soviet military officer who saved Kim Il Sung's life on 1 May 1946, is reported to also have developed a cult of personality around 1984. He is considered the only non-Korean to have developed a cult of personality there.[119]
Thepropaganda techniques used, either by himself or by others, to mythologize Ferdinand Marcos, began with local political machinations inIlocos Norte while Ferdinand was still the young son of politician and Japanese collaboratorMariano Marcos,[125] and persist today in the efforts to revise the way Marcos is portrayed in Philippine history.[126] According to members of his administration, such asAdrian Cristobal, Marcos's intent was to project an image of himself "the only patron, the king" of Philippine society, which he still saw as a society of tribes."[127] Cristobal furthers that "Marcos and the First Lady wanted more than anything else [...] to be king and queen. They wished to shape the kingdom in their own image; [...] Marcos wanted to be able to say, 'L'État, c'est moi.'"[127] In some extreme cases where Marcos encouraged the formation of cults so that they could serve as a political weapon, Marcos came to be thought of as a God.[128]
These propaganda narratives and techniques include: using red scare tactics such asred-tagging to portray activists as communists and to exaggerate the threat represented by theCommunist Party of the Philippines;[129]: "43" using martial law to take control of mass media and silence criticism;[130] the use offoreign-funded government development projects and construction projects as propaganda tools;[131] creating an entire propaganda framework around a "new society" in which he would rule under a system of "constitutional authoritarianism";[132][126][133] the perpetuation of hagiographical books and films;[134][135] the perpetuation of propaganda narratives about Marcos's activities during World War II, which have since been proven false by historical documents;[136][137] the creation of myths and stories around himself and his family;[138][139] and portrayals of himself in coinage and even a Mount Rushmore type monument;[140] among others."
Since Ferdinand Marcos's death, propaganda efforts have been made towhitewash his place in Philippine history,[141][142] an act ofhistorical negationism[143] commonly referred to using the more popular term "historical revisionism."[144]
Russian PresidentVladimir Putin has created a cult of personality for himself as an outdoorsy, sporty,tough guy public image, demonstrating his physical capabilities and taking part in unusual or dangerous acts, such as extreme sports and interaction with wild animals.[145]
The first cult of personality to take shape in the USSR was that ofVladimir Lenin. Up until thedissolution of the USSR in 1991, Lenin's portrait and quotes were a ubiquitous part of the culture. However, during his lifetime, Lenin vehemently denounced any effort to build a cult of personality, as (in his eyes) the cult of personality was antithetical to Marxism.[146] Despite this, members of theCommunist Party used Lenin's image as the all-knowing revolutionary who would liberate theproletariat. Lenin attempted to take action against this; however it was halted after Lenin was nearly assassinated in August 1918. His health would only further decline as he suffered numerous severe strokes, with the worst in May 1922 and March 1923. In this state Lenin would lose the ability to walk and speak. During this time the Bolshevik Party began to promote the accomplishments of Lenin as the basis for a cult of personality, using him as an image of morality and of revolutionary ideas.[18]
Propaganda poster of Lenin and Stalin
After Vladimir Lenin's death in 1924 and the exile ofLeon Trotsky in 1928,Joseph Stalin came to embody theSoviet Union. Once Lenin's cult of personality had grown, creating enough influence, Stalin integrated Lenin's ideals into his own cult.[146] Unlike other cults of personalities, the Lenin and Stalin cults were not created to give the leaders power, they were created to give power and validation to the Communist Party. Stalin initially spoke out against the cult and other outrageous and false claims centered around him. However Stalin's attitude began to shift in favor of the cult in the 1930s, and he began to encourage it following theGreat Purge of 1936 to 1938.[147] Seldom did Stalin object to state actions that furthered his cult of personality, however he did oppose some initiatives from Soviet propagandists. WhenNikolai Yezhov proposed to renameMoscow toStalinodar, which translates as "gift of Stalin", Stalin objected.[148] To merge the Lenin and Stalin cults together, Stalin changed aspects of Lenin's life in the public's eye in order to place himself in power. This kept the two cults in a line that showed that both Lenin and Stalin had the same ideas and that Stalin was the rightful successor of Lenin, leading the USSR in the fashion Lenin would have done.[146]
In December 1929, Stalin celebrated his 50th birthday, which featured prominently in theSoviet press.[149] The media used positive adjectives like, "Great", "Beloved", "Bold", "Wise", "Inspirer", and "Genius" to describe him.[150] Similarly, speeches that were given by people to the peasants described Stalin as "Our Best Collective Farm Worker", "OurShockworker, Our Best of Best", and "Our Darling, Our Guiding Star".[150] By 1934, under Stalin's full control of the country,socialist realism became the endorsed method of art and literature.[147] Even under the communist regime, the Stalin cult of personality portrayed Stalin's leadership as patriarchy under the features laid out during Khrushchev's1956 speech.[18] After 1936, the Soviet press described Stalin as the "Father of Nations".[151]
One key element ofSoviet propaganda was interaction between Stalin and the children of the Soviet Union. He was often photographed with children of different ethnic backgrounds of the Soviet Union and was often photographed giving gifts to children. In 1935 the phrase, "Thank You, Dear Comrade Stalin, for a Happy Childhood!" started to appear above doorways at nurseries, orphanages, and schools; children also chanted this slogan at festivals.[152] Another key element of Soviet propaganda was imagery of Stalin and Lenin. In many posters, Stalin and Lenin were placed together to show their camaraderie and that their ideals were one. Throughout the 1930s, posters with both images were used as a way to bring the nation and the military together under the policies of the Communist Party duringWorld War II, with the idea of Lenin as the father of the revolutionary ideas and Stalin as the disciple who would fulfill the communist ideals.[147] Stalin was also portrayed in numerous films produced byMosfilm, which remained a Soviet-led company until the fall of the Soviet Union.
Following the outbreak of theSpanish Civil War in 1936,Francisco Franco's image was deliberately crafted through extensive nationalist propaganda that portrayed him as a messianic figure and savior of traditional Spanish values against republican and communist forces preventing Spain from becoming a Soviet puppet.[153] The carefully constructed narrative emphasized his military prowess and Catholic piety, with state-controlled media consistently depicting him as "El Caudillo" (The Leader), a divinely appointed guardian of Spain's cultural and religious heritage.[154]
Syria'sHafez al-Assad, aBa'athist officer who seized power through acoup d'état in 1970, established a pervasive cult of personality to maintain his dictatorship. As soon as he took over power, Ba'ath party loyalists designated him as "Al-Abad"; an Arabic terminology with deep religious dimensions. Linguistically, ''Al-Abad'' means "forever, infinite and immortality" and religious clerics use this term in relation toDivine Attributes. By designating Assad as "Al-Abad",Syrian Ba'ath Movement ideologically elevated Hafez al-Assad as its "Immortal", "god-like figure" who is supposed to represent the state as well as theSyrian nation itself. Another meaning ofAl-Abad is "permanent", which is used in state propaganda to denote the perpetualstatus quo of an "eternal political order" created by Hafez al-Assad, who continues to live inAssadist ideology. The term's verbal form "Abada" means "to commitgenocide" including the "symbolical; performative side of violence". This dimension was weaponized by the Assad regime to monopolize violence against alleged dissidents and justifystate terrorism, including genocidal acts of mass murder like theHama Massacre,Qamishli Massacre and othermassacres of the Syrian civil war.[155]
Arab Socialist Ba'ath party initially manufactured Hafez al-Assad's cult ofArab socialist heroism in consultancy withSoviet state propagandists, mimicking the pervasive personality cults prevalent acrossSoviet Bloc dictatorships likeRomania and North Korea. Beginning as a tool to bind every Syrian citizen with the obligation of undying loyalty (bay'ah) to Assad in 1970s, the propaganda was further intensified and personalist depictions reached new heights during the 1980s. The state began re-writingSyrian history itself, with the Ba'ath party deifying Hafez al-Assad as their "leader for eternity" ["qa'iduna ila l-abad"] and portraying him as "the secondSaladin" who guaranteesArab peoples victory overZionistCrusaders. Through kindergarten, school books, educational institutions andBaathist media; Assadist propaganda constructed the image of a homogenousArab nation protected by a fatherly leader revelling under the "cult of Saladin". The Assad regime venerated Hafez al-Assad'spersonalisticonography perpetually in the public and private spheres of everyday Syrian life; through monuments, images, murals, posters, statues, stamps, Ba'athist symbolism, currency notes, photos, banners, state TV, etc.[156][157]: 65–83 More than a leader of the masses, Ba'athist propaganda equated Hafez al-Assad itself with "the people", apart from declaring him as the "father of the nation" and as an exceptional human being; being assigned with multiple roles as a doctor, soldier, lawyer, educator, statesman, general, etc. Every civil society organization, trade union and any form of cultural or religious associations in Syria, are obliged to declare their "binding covenant to Hafez al-Assad and display his iconography, in order to be legalized. The far-reaching personality cult of his father has been weaponized byBashar al-Assad as a pillar of his regime's legitimacy and also as a supplement to enhance his own personality cult. Bashar's cult downplayed religious elements for technocratic Arab socialist themes, with a constantmilitaristic emphasis on conspiratorial threats from forces of Zionism due to an allegedly ongoing "dormant war withIsrael".[156]: 64–74
One utilization of the personality cult had been to enable the Assad dynasty to downplay the ruralAlawite origins of their family from public eyes. Images ofAssad family members were installed across Syria's numerous heritage sites and monuments, to wed the dynasty withBa'athist Syrian history. Murals and statues of Hafez al-Assad and Bashar al-Assad were constructed across Syrian cities, towns, villages, etc. depicting them in the costumes of medievalBedouins or as sultans likeHarun al-Rashid.[156]: 79–80 Assadist cult of personality functioned as apsychological tool for the totalitarian regime; which attempted to claim towards the Syrian society that the Ba'athist system shall continue ruling eternally, forever, with no end.[155] The Assadist cult is being dismantled following thefall of the Assad regime.[citation needed]
In Turkey, founder of the Turkish RepublicMustafa Kemal Atatürk is commemorated by a myriad of memorials throughout the country, such as theAtatürk International Airport in Istanbul, theAtatürk Bridge over theGolden Horn (Haliç), theAtatürk Dam, andAtatürk Stadium. His titles include Great Leader (Ulu Önder), Eternal Commander (Ebedî Başkomutan), Head Teacher (Başöğretmen), and Eternal Chief (Ebedî Şef). Atatürk statues have been erected in all Turkish cities by the Turkish Government, and most towns have their own memorial to him. His face and name are seen and heard everywhere in Turkey; his portrait can be seen in all public buildings, in all schools and classrooms, on all school textbooks, on allTurkish lira banknotes, and in the homes of many Turkish families.[158]
At the exact time of Atatürk's death, on every November 10, at 09:05, most vehicles and people in the country's streets pause for one minute in remembrance.[159] In 1951, theTurkish Parliament issued a law (5816) outlawing insults to his reminiscence (Turkish:hatırasına alenen hakaret) or destruction of objects representing him, which is still in force.[160] There is a government website[161] that is aimed at denouncing different kinds of crimes found on the internet, including with the 8th element crimes committed against Atatürk (Turkish:Atatürk aleyhine işlenen suçlar). The Turkish government as of 2025 has filters in place to block websites deemed to contain materials insulting to his memory.
The start of Atatürk's cult of personality is placed in the 1920s when the first statues started being built.[162] The idea of Atatürk as the "father of the Turks" is ingrained in Turkish politics and politicians in that country are evaluated in relation to his cult of personality.[163] The persistence of the phenomenon of Atatürk's personality cult has become an area of deep interest to scholars.[164]
Atatürk impersonators are also seen around Turkey much after Atatürk's death to preserve what is called the "world's longest-running personality cult".[165]
Another American politician to whom a cult of personality has been ascribed isHuey Long, the populist governor of Louisiana from 1928 to 1932, who continued to control the politics of the state as a United States senator until he was assassinated in 1935.[189][190] TheLaRouche movement has been considered to be a personality cult based uponLyndon LaRouche.[191][192][193]
Throughout the existence of South Vietnam, its government sought to build a cult of personality around its head of stateNgo Dinh Diem with such institutions asNational Revolutionary Movement and Ministry of Information and Youth. The South Vietnamese regime promoted a national identity centered around the personality of Ngo Dinh Diem, his ideas, and his political doctrine, carried out indoctrination activities among the Vietnamese peasantry similar to the ones ofVichy France, and presented Ngo Dinh Diem as an "enlightened sovereign" who could improve the lot of all Vietnamese by creating "economic and social stability for all."[195]
Some senior commercial executives, following in the footsteps of the likes of heroes such asHenry Ford orThomas J. Watson,[199]have also become "omnipotent superstars" and the objects of cults of personality,[200] includingElon Musk[201],Steve Jobs[202],Sam Altman[203], andJeff Bezos.[204][205] Outside of business and politics, numerous pop culture figures have been labeled as having a cult of personality through their fandoms that has been exacerbated through social media and online communities, withTaylor Swift and her fans (known asSwifties) being labeled as a prominent example in the 21st century.[206][207] Other widely scrutinized celebrities that are accused of having cults of personalities around them and their works includeThe Beatles (exemplified throughBeatlemania),Nicki Minaj,Ariana Grande,Michael Jackson,BTS, andKanye West.
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^Campbell, Charlie (July 25, 2024)."How Mass Protests Challenge Bangladesh's Past—and Threaten to Rewrite Its Future".TIME. Archived fromthe original on July 28, 2024. RetrievedAugust 6, 2024.In lieu of a true popular mandate—the U.S. deemed January's election, which returned the Awami League for a fourth straight term but was boycotted by the main opposition Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), as neither free nor fair—Hasina increasingly leans upon the cult of personality she's constructed around her father.
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^M. Hakan Yavuz (2009).Secularism and Muslim Democracy in Turkey. Cambridge University Press. p. 120.ISBN9780521888783. RetrievedJune 21, 2013.In other works there is a deeply internalized notion of Ataturk as the "father" of the Turks, and all politicians are very much measured against his cult of personality.
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^Maney, Kevin (August 3, 2004) [2003]. "World Conquest".The Maverick and His Machine: Thomas Watson, Sr. and the Making of IBM (reprint ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. p. 380.ISBN9780471679257. RetrievedMay 15, 2025.The IBM culture — in effect, the Watson cult — revolved around Watson worship that was both flagrant (Watson's photo hanging in every office and factory) and subtle (managers mimicking his style of dress). [...] nobody could seek out and drink in more adulation than Watson, and do it without a hint of embarrassment.
^Lloyd, Tom (October 22, 2009).Business at a Crossroads: The Crisis of Corporate Leadership. Basingstoke: Springer.ISBN9780230250987. RetrievedMay 15, 2025.This cult of personality infected the entire system. Institutional investors demanding change saw the CEO as the crucial variable in business success and failure [...]. [...] Investment analysts responded to this leader-centric view of their ultimate clients, exploited investor relations strategies that co-opted CEOs as their principal marketing assets and substituted for an analysis of the intrinsic strengths of a company's business, an assessment of its CEO's character, philosophy and management style and detailed examinations of his or her pronouncements, statements and sound bites. [...] The 'CEO as hero' cult was convenient for asset managers and stock analysts [...]. [...] Investment bankers [...] also found the CEO cult convenient [...]. [...] The elevation of CEOs into omnipotent superstars with pay packets to match, is not [...] an inevitable consequence of the interaction of natural human impulses with the capitalist system. [...] It is, rather, the product of a 'market failure' [...].
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