 Some modern Hawaiian dishes. From top left, clockwise:tripe stew (ʻōpū kū), rice (laiki),ʻopihipoke,laulau,squid lūʻau,pipikaula shortribs,kālua puaʻa (kālua pig), andpoi in the center. | |
| Country or region | Hawaii |
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Thecuisine of Hawaii incorporates five distinct styles of food, reflecting the diversefood history of settlement and immigration in theHawaiian Islands, primarily originating fromPolynesian,North American andEast Asian cuisines.[a]
In the pre-contact period ofAncient Hawaii (300 AD–1778),Polynesian voyagers brought plants and animals to the Islands. AsNative Hawaiians settled the area, they fished, raisedtaro forpoi, planted coconuts, sugarcane, sweet potatoes and yams, and cooked meat and fish in earth ovens.[1]
Afterfirst contact in 1778,European andAmerican cuisine arrived along with missionaries and whalers, who introduced their foods and built largesugarcaneplantations.Christian missionaries broughtNew England cuisine[2] while whalers introducedsalted fish which eventually transformed intolomilomi salmon.
As pineapple and sugarcane plantations grew, so did the demand for labor, bringing many immigrant groups to the Islands between 1850 and 1930. Immigrant workers brought cuisines fromChina,Korea,Japan, thePhilippines,Puerto Rico andPortugal after arriving in Hawaii, introducing their new foods and influencing the region.
The introduction of new ethnic foods, such as Chinese Cantonesechar siu bao (manapua),Portuguese sweet bread andmalasadas, Puerto Ricanpasteles, and the Japanesebento, combined with the existing indigenous, European and American foods in the plantation working environments and the local communities.
This blend of cuisines formed a "local food" style unique to Hawaii, resulting in plantation foods like theplate lunch, snacks likeSpam musubi, and dishes like theloco moco. Shortly afterWorld War II several well-known local restaurants opened their doors to serve "Hawaiian Food". Chefs further refined the local style and labeled it "Hawaii regional cuisine" in 1991,[3] a style of cooking that makes use of locally grown ingredients to blend all of Hawaii's historical influences together to form a newfusion cuisine.
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WhenPolynesian seafarers arrived on theHawaiian Islands in 1000–1200 AD, few edible plants existed in the new land, aside from ferns (hāpuʻu ʻiʻi, whose uncoiled fronds are eaten boiled) and fruits that grew at higher elevations. Botanists and archaeologists believe that the Polynesian voyagers introduced anywhere between 27 and more than 30 plants to the islands, known ascanoe plants, mainly for food.[4] The most important of them wastaro.[5]
For centuries taro, and thepoi made from it, was the mainstaple of their diet, and it is still much loved today. In addition to taro the Polynesians broughtsweet potatoes. These are believed to have come from Polynesian contact with the New World.[6]
TheMarquesans, the first settlers from Polynesia, broughtbreadfruit and theTahitians later introduced thebaking banana. These settlers from Polynesia also broughtcoconuts,candlenuts (known in Hawaiian askukui nuts), and sugarcane.[7] Later generations of these settlers however did not utilise coconuts as much as other related Polynesian groups down south.[8] They found plenty of fish, shellfish, andlimu in the new land.[4]Flightless birds were easy to catch and nests were full of eggs for the taking.[4]
MostPacific islands had no meat animals except bats and lizards, so ancient Polynesians sailed the Pacific with pigs, chickens anddogs as cargo.[9] Pigs were raised forreligious sacrifice, and the meat was offered at altars, some of which was consumed by priests and the rest eaten in a mass celebration.[9]
The early Hawaiian diet was diverse, and may have included as many as 130 different types of seafood and 230 types of sweet potatoes.[10] Some species of land and sea birds were consumed into extinction.[11]
Sea salt was a common condiment in ancient Hawaii,[12] andinamona, arelish made of roasted, mashedkukui nutmeats,sea salt and sometimes mixed withseaweeds, often accompanied the meals.[12]
At important occasions, a traditional feast,‘aha‘aina, was held. When a woman was to have her first child, her husband started raising a pig for the‘Aha‘aina Mawaewae feast that was celebrated for the birth of a child. Besides the pig,mullet, shrimp, crab, seaweeds and taro leaves were required for the feast.[13]
The modern name for such feasts,lū‘au, was not used until 1856, replacing the Hawaiian words‘aha‘aina andpā‘ina.[14] The namelū‘au came from the name of a food always served at a‘aha‘aina, young taro tops baked withcoconut milk and chicken oroctopus.
Prior to cooking, pigs and dogs were killed by strangulation or by holding their nostrils shut, in order to conserve the animal's blood.[15] Meat was prepared by flattening out the whole eviscerated animal and broiling it over hot coals, or it was spitted on sticks.[15] Large pieces of meat, such as fowl, pigs and dogs, would be typically cooked inearth ovens, or spitted over a fire during ceremonial feasts.[16][15]
Hawaiian earth ovens, known as animu, combineroasting andsteaming in a method calledkālua. A pit is dug into the earth and lined withvolcanic rocks and other rocks that do not split when heated to a high temperature, such asgranite.[17] A fire is built withembers, and when the rocks are glowing hot, the embers are removed and the foods wrapped inti, ginger or banana leaves are put into the pit, covered with wet leaves, mats and a layer of earth. Water may be added through abamboo tube to create steam.
The intense heat from the hot rocks cooked food thoroughly—the quantity of food for several days could be cooked at once, taken out and eaten as needed, and the cover replaced to keep the remainder warm.[12] Sweet potatoes, taro, breadfruit and other vegetables were cooked in theimu, as well as fish.Saltwater eel was salted and dried before being put into theimu.[18] Chickens, pigs anddogs were put into theimu with hot rocks inserted in the abdominal cavities.[12]
Men did all of the cooking, and food for women was cooked in a separateimu; afterwards men and women ate meals separately.[c] The ancient practice of cooking with theimu continues to this day, for special occasions.[19]
In 1778, CaptainJames Cook arrived at the island ofNiihau, leaving a ram goat, ewes, a boar, an English sow, and seeds for melons, pumpkins, and onions.[20] In 1793, CaptainGeorge Vancouver brought the first cattle to the islands;longhorns from California were presented to KingKamehameha I.[21][22]
With nonatural predators, the new cattle multiplied out of control; the king hired an American man named John Parker to capture and domesticate cattle.[22] Many of the cattle were butchered and beef was introduced to Hawaiian cuisine.
In 1813,pineapple was first cultivated in Honolulu byDon Francisco de Paula Marin,[23] a Spanish botanist and advisor to King Kamehameha I.
Although grape vines were introduced by Captain Vancouver around 1792, Marin is credited with the first Hawaiianvineyard in 1815 and planting the now rareMission grape variety.[24] Marin also brewed the first beer in 1812,[25] and planted the first coffee crop in 1817, but his plantings failed.[26] Marin, called "Manini" by the Hawaiians, experimented with planting oranges, limes, beans, cabbages, potatoes, peaches, melons,maize and lettuce.
By the late 19th century, pineapple and sugarcane plantations owned and run by American settlers took over much of Hawaii's land, and these two crops became the most important sources of revenue for the Hawaiian economy.[27]
As the plantations of theBig Five expanded, the demand for labor grew, so the plantation owners hired immigrant workers, which includedChinese,Koreans,Japanese,Filipinos, andPortuguese. Eachethnic group wanted its food in workplaces, and farms and grocery markets were established.
The Chinese immigrants broughtCantonese cuisine, cooking the firststir fry,sweet and sour, anddim sum dishes in the islands,[28] adding their herbs and spices and served with rice.[27] Rice cultivation was often done from reuse of wet taro patches (loʻi),[29] which themselves were the Hawaiians' adaptation ofpaddy agriculture by theirAustronesian ancestors outlasting ancestral knowledge of therice grain gradually lost during theexpansion into the Pacific.[30] Chinese rice growers imported familiar fish varieties from Asia to stock local streams and irrigation ditches.[31]
Korean immigration to Hawaii broughtkimchi and built barbecue pits to cook marinated meats. Korean-stylebulgogi or boneless meat with moderately sweet garlic sauce andgalbi or meat with bones and moderately sweet garlic sauce as well, and another Korean favoritebibimbab or mixed rice with seasoned vegetables,namul, sweet and spicygochujang andbulgogi topping also became an integral part of Hawaiian cuisine.[32]
ThePortuguese immigrants came to Hawaii from theAzores in the late 19th century,[33] introducing their foods with an emphasis on pork, tomatoes andchili peppers, and builtforno, their traditional beehive oven, to makepão doce, thePortuguese sweet bread andmalasada.[5]Whalers brought in salted fish, which ultimately becamelomi-lomi salmon.[17]
The Japanese broughtbento andsashimi, and, although many of their vegetable seeds would not grow in the climate of the islands, they succeeded in makingtofu andsoy sauce.[5] The homes of Japanese immigrants lacked ovens, so their cooking relied on frying, steaming, broiling, andsimmering, leading to the popularization oftempura andnoodle soups in Hawaii.[28]
By the early 20th century, the Japanese were the largest ethnic group and rice became the third-largest crop in the islands.[34]
Puerto Rican immigration to Hawaii began in 1900, contributing spicy, Spanish-seasoned thick soups,casseroles,pasteles, andmeat turnovers.[28]
Filipinos reached Hawaii in 1909, bringing peas and beans, theadobo style of vinegar and garlic dishes, choosing to boil, stew, broil, and fry food instead of baking, and eating sweet potatoes as a staple besides rice.[28]
Samoans arrived in 1919, building their earth ovens above ground instead of below like theimu, and madepoi from fruit instead of taro.[28]
After theVietnam War ended in 1975, immigrants from Southeast Asia arrived,[35] bringinglemongrass,fish sauce andgalangal, popular inThai andVietnamese cuisine.[28]
The first restaurant inHonolulu was opened in 1849 by a Portuguese man named Peter Fernandez. Situated behind the Bishop & Co. bank, the establishment was known as the "eating house" and was followed by other restaurants, such as Leon Dejean's "Parisian Restaurant" at the corner of Hotel and Fort Streets.[36]
In 1872, theRoyal Hawaiian Hotel opened on Hotel Street, and as one of the most refined hotels in the Pacific, catering to wealthy clients. The Royal Hawaiian dining room served dishes on par with the best restaurants in Europe, with an 1874 menu offering dishes such as mullet, spring lamb, chicken with tomatoes, andcabinet pudding.[37]
The massive pineapple industry of Hawaii was born when the "Pineapple King",James Dole, planted pineapples on the island ofOahu in 1901.[5] In 1922, Dole purchased the island ofLanai for a large-scale pineapple production. By 1950, hisHawaiian Pineapple Company was the largest in the world.[5]
In 1905,George R. Carter,Territorial Governor of Hawai'i, promoted increasing local agricultural production, saying that "there was a time when Hawaii supplied California with flour, also potatoes and other vegetables. Now California produces her own and sends part of the surplus here."
Newspaper editorials of the time also questioned why locally-grownguavas were rotting on the ground whileagribusiness was planting non-native pineapples in Hawaii. These concerns were not addressed until almost a century later, when the regional cuisine movement began encouraging the food industry to "grow local, buy local, and eat local."[38]
Since the 1970s, pineapples have been grown more cheaply inSoutheast Asia, so Hawaiian agriculture has taken a diverse approach, producing a variety of crops, includingsquash, tomatoes, chili peppers andlettuce.[5]
From 1978 to 1988, chefs who came to Hawaii would avoid Hawaiian-grown ingredients like their European counterparts, preferring to ship everything in from the U.S. mainland, or as far away as Australia, New Zealand, and Europe.[39]
While eating out was not as prevalent as it is now, local eateries began to establish themselves starting in the 1960s.Diners anddrive ins served local ethnic foods in addition to the American fare such as Rainbow Drive-in, L&L, Liliha Bakery and Zippy's. Smaller mom-n-pop shops such assaimin houses, convenience stores were common in neighborhood serving pre-setbentos ora la carte items at anokazuya (Japanese "deli").[40] Some were even mobile, affectionately known asmanapua vans selling smalldim sum-like treats long beforefood truck culture became the trend in the 21st century.[41][42]
Japanese-American bakerRobert Taira, came up with a recipe for the Hawaiian version of sweet Portuguese bread in the 1950s. Taira began to commercially produce the bread in Hawaii, and it became successful in Honolulu bakeries and coffee shops, with plant production expanding toCalifornia andSouth Carolina. By the 1980s, Taira's company,King's Hawaiian Bakery, was grossing US$20 million annually.[33]
Hawaii regional cuisine refers to a style of cooking and the group of chefs who developed it and advocated for it as a distinct Hawaiianfusion style. The cuisine draws from local ingredients (including seafood, beef and tropical foods), and is a fusion of ethnic culinary influences.[43]
The cuisine style was developed in 1991[3] by a group of twelve chefs:Sam Choy, Philippe Padovani, Roger Dikon, Gary Strehl,Roy Yamaguchi, Amy Ferguson Ota,Jean-Marie Josselin,George Mavrothalassitis,Beverly Gannon,Peter Merriman,Mark Ellman andAlan Wong.[39]
The development of Hawaii regional cuisine was a coordinated effort to move away from ingredients shipped over long distances and preparations that copied continental recipes even when they were not well suited to conditions in Hawaii.[44][45] Rather, the group hoped to promote locally sourced ingredients in the hospitality industry while simultaneously informing the world about cuisine in Hawaii.
The goal of the group was to link local ranchers, fishermen and farmers with chefs and business in the hospitality and restaurant industry to develop Hawaii regional cuisine as a reflection of the community.
They took uninspired international and continental hotel cuisine based on imported products and recipes from the mainland and replaced them with dishes and a cuisine based on locally grown foods.[7]
This founding group of chefs worked to publish the 1994 cookbook by Janice Wald Henderson,The New Cuisine of Hawaii. These chefs also sponsored a cookbook to be sold for charity.[46]
The continued popularity of Hawaii in the 21st century as a tourist destination has helped spawn Hawaiian-themed and Hawaiian cuisine restaurants in the contiguous United States such as Ono Hawaiian BBQ[47] andL&L Hawaiian Barbecue. Its popularity is also reaching Europe, with the restaurant POND Dalston opening in 2014 as first New Hawaiian Cuisine in the United Kingdom.[48] There are also many Hawaiian-made specialties such as Lilikoi açaí bowls from places like Ono Yo on the North Shore of Oahu. There are also branded items such asMauna Loa macadamia nuts. Sugarcane producerAlexander & Baldwin continues to operate and has diversified into other businesses.
Dole Food Company is based in Hawaii and still has a pineapple operation on Oahu.Maui Land & Pineapple Company ceased production in 2009. Some of its assets and employees are involved in the Haliʻimaile Pineapple Company startup and Kapalua Farms organic pineapple operation was taken over by Ulupono Sustainable Agriculture Development with backing fromPierre Omidyar. Beer producerKona Brewing Company and theVolcano Winery are active.
Local eateries include theZippy's chain.Foodland Hawaii is a grocery chain. There are also distinctive and historic business operations such asKanemitsu Bakery, Helena's Hawaiian Food,[49] Common Ground Kauai,[50]Anna Miller's, Nisshodo Candy Store,[51]Maui Tacos and Waiʻoli Tea Room & Bakery atSalvation Army Waiʻoli Tea Room.
Roy Yamaguchi'sRoy's and various cookbooks promoting Hawaiian regional cuisine have also helped popularize Hawaiian cuisine and Hawaiian fusion cuisine.
TheHormel company's canned meat productSpam has been highly popular in Hawaii for decades. Per capita, Hawaiians are the second largest consumers of Spam in the world, right behindGuam.[53] Originally brought to Hawaii by American servicemen in theirrations,[54] Spam became an important source of protein for locals after fishing around the islands was prohibited duringWorld War II.[7] In 2005, Hawaiians consumed more than five million cans of Spam.[53]
Spam is used in local dishes in a variety of ways, most commonly fried and served with rice. For breakfast, fried eggs are often served with spam.[53] Spam can also be wrapped inti and roasted, skewered anddeep fried,[7] orstir fried with cabbage.[53]
It is added tosaimin andfried rice, mashed with tofu, or served with coldsōmen or bakedmacaroni and cheese.
It is also used inchutney forpupus, in sandwiches withmayonnaise, or baked with guava jelly.[53]Spam musubi, a slice of fried Spam upon a bed of rice wrapped with a strip ofnori, is a popular snack in Hawaii which found its way onto island sushi menus in the 1980s.[53]
In the 19th century, John Parker brought over Mexican cowboys to train the Hawaiians incattle ranching.[22] The Hawaiian cowboys ofKamuela andKula came to be calledpaniolos.
Cattle ranching grew rapidly for the next 100 years. In 1960, half of the land in Hawaii was devoted to ranching for beef export, but by 1990 the number had shrunk to 25 percent.[55] Thepaniolos chewedpipikaula ("beef rope"), a salted and dried beef that resemblesbeef jerky.[56]Pipikaula would usually bebroiled before serving.[57] With the influence of Asian cooking, beef strips are commonly marinated insoy sauce.[56]
When beef is dried in the sun, a screened box is traditionally used to keep the meat from dust and flies. Dried meat could often be found as a relish or appetizer at alū‘au.[56]
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Tuna is the most important fish in Hawaiian cuisine.[58] Varieties include theskipjack tuna (aku), theyellowfin tuna (ahi), and thealbacore tuna (tombo).
Ahi in particular has a long history, since ancient Hawaiians used it on long ocean voyages because it is well preserved when salted and dried.[59] A large portion of the local tuna fishery goes to Japan to be sold forsashimi.[58] Tuna is eaten as sashimi in Hawaii as well, but is also grilled orsautéed, or made intopoke.
ThePacific blue marlin (kajiki) isbarbecued or grilled at high temperatures, but for a relatively short period of time to avoid overcooking due to its very low fat content.[58] Thebroadbill swordfish (shutome), popular and shipped all over the mainland United States, is high in fat and itssteaks may be grilled, broiled, or used instir-fries. Thegroupers (hapuu) are most often steamed. Thered snapper (onaga) is steamed,poached, or baked. Thepink snapper (opakapaka) has a higher fat, and is steamed or baked, served with a light sauce. Thewahoo (ono) is grilled or sautéed, and thedolphin fish (mahimahi) is usually cut into steaks and fried or grilled. Themoonfish (opah) is used for broiling,smoking, or making sashimi.
Poke is a local cuisine that originally involved preserving raw fish or other seafood such as octopus withsea salt and rubbing it (lomi) with seasonings or cutting it into small pieces. Seasonings made of seaweed,kukui nut, and sea salt were traditionally used for the Hawaiian poke.
Sincefirst contact with Western and Asian cultures,scallions, chili peppers, and soy sauce have become common additions to it.[60]
Poke is different fromsashimi, since the former is usually rough-cut and piled onto a plate, and can be made with less expensive pieces of fish.[61]
During the early 1970s, poke became anappetizer to have with beer or to bring to a party.[62]
Showing the island's Asian influence, common Asian spices includefive-spice powder from China,wasabi andshoyu (soy sauce) from Japan, andbagoong from the Philippines.
a.^ Food historianRachel Laudan (1996) on four distinct types of foodplus a new,fifth type known as "Hawaiian Regional Cuisine" (HRC) that began in 1991. Because HRC was so new at the time of Laudan's book, she only briefly touches upon it: "I came to understand that what people in Hawaii eat is a mixture of four distinct kinds of food, introduced at distinct periods, but now all coexisting. The first three reflect the three diasporas that have terminated in Hawaii: the great marine diaspora of the Pacific Islanders that probably reached the Hawaiian Islands sometime in the third century A.D..; the European voyages of discovery that finally came upon the Islands in the late eighteenth century; and the long migration of the Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Koreans, Filipinos, and lately, Southeast Asians, most of whom came to work on the plantations. From these diverse traditions, a fourth, an East-West-Pacific food, is now being created, known in the Islands as Local Food.[67] [...] But there is another cuisine in the Islands that attracts attention, Hawaii Regional Cuisine...[it] was created by forces quite different from those that drive Local Food...although the forces creating Hawaii Regional Cuisine and Local Food were different, their current cross-fertilization can be nothing but mutually beneficial, creating a firm regional base for the cuisine of the restaurants and increasing sophistication for the cuisine of the home and the street."[68]
b.^ The early settlement history of Hawaiʻi is not completely resolved. One theory is that the first Polynesians arrived in Hawaiʻi in the third century from the Marquesas and were followed by Tahitian settlers in 1300 AD who conquered the original inhabitants. Another is that there was an extended period of contact but not necessarily for a Tahitian invasion.[69]
c.^ Men and women ate their meals separately to preserve the distinction between male and femalemana, which was thought to be blurred by both sexes handling the same food. In addition, some foods were forbidden to women, such as pork, certain kinds of fish and most types of bananas.[12]
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