During the 1970s through the late 1980s, Cubaintervened in numerous conflicts in support of anti-colonial and Marxist governments or movements across Africa, Latin America, and the Middle East. According to aCIA declassified report, Cuba had received $33 billion in Soviet aid by 1984. Following thedissolution of the Soviet Union, Cuba faced a severe economic downturn in the 1990s, known as theSpecial Period. In 2008, Castro retired after 49 years;Raúl Castro was elected his successor. Raúl retired as president of theCouncil of State in 2018, andMiguel Díaz-Canel was elected president by the National Assembly followingparliamentary elections. Raúl retired asFirst Secretary of the Communist Party in 2021, and Díaz-Canel was elected thereafter, becoming Cuba's first leader to have been born after the Cuban Revolution.
Cuba has one of the world's fewplanned economies, andits economy isdominated by tourism and the exports of skilled labor, sugar, tobacco, and coffee. Cuba has historically—before and during communist rule—performed better than other countries in Latin America and the Caribbean on several socioeconomic indicators, such as literacy,[21][22] infant mortality, and life expectancy. According to a 2012 study, Cuba is the only country in the world to meet the conditions of sustainable development put forth by theWWF.[23] Cuba has auniversal health care system that provides free medical treatment to all Cuban citizens,[24][25] although challenges include low salaries for doctors, poor facilities, poor provision of equipment, and the frequent absence of essential drugs.[26][27]
A 2023 study by the Cuban Observatory of Human Rights estimated that 88% of the population lives inextreme poverty.[28] According to theWorld Food Programme of the United Nations, rationed food meets only a fraction of daily nutritional needs for many Cubans, leading to health issues.[29] Ongoing since 1960, theUnited States embargo against Cuba stands as one of the longest-running trade and economic measures in bilateral relations in history.[30]
Etymology
Historians believe the nameCuba comes from theTaíno language; however, its derivation is unknown.[31]Cuba may be translated either as 'where fertile land is abundant' (cubao),[32] or 'great place' (coabana).
Humans first settled Cuba around 6,000 years ago, descending from migrations from northern South America or Central America.[36] The arrival of humans on Cuba is associated with extinctions of the island's native fauna, particularly itsendemic sloths.[37] TheArawakan-speaking ancestors of theTaíno people arrived in the Caribbean in a separate migration from South America around 1,700 years ago. Unlike the previous settlers of Cuba, the Taíno extensively produced pottery and engaged in intensive agriculture.[36] The earliest evidence of the Taíno people on Cuba dates to the 9th century.[38] Descendants of the first settlers of Cuba persisted on the western part of the island until Columbian contact, where they were recorded as theGuanahatabey people, who lived a hunter-gatherer lifestyle.[39][36]
In 1511 the firstSpanish settlement was founded byDiego Velázquez de Cuéllar atBaracoa. Other settlements followed, includingSan Cristobal de la Habana, founded in 1514 (southern coast of the island) and then in 1519 (current place), which later became the capital (1607). The Taíno were forced to work under theencomienda system,[43] which resembled thefeudal system in medieval Europe.[44] Within a century, the Taíno faced high incidence of mortality from multiple factors—primarily Eurasianinfectious diseases to which they had noacquired immunity, aggravated by the harsh conditions of the repressive colonial subjugation.[45] In 1529, ameasles outbreak killed two-thirds of those few indigenous individuals who had previously survivedsmallpox.[46][47]
On 18 May 1539,conquistadorHernando de Soto departed from Havana with some 600 followers on an extensive expedition through theSoutheastern United States in search of gold, treasure, fame, and power.[48] On 1 September 1548, Gonzalo Perez de Angulo was appointed governor of Cuba. He arrived inSantiago de Cuba on 4 November 1549 and declared the liberty of the indigenous population.[49] He became Cuba's first permanent governor, residing in Havana, and he built the first church made of masonry in Cuba.[50][c]
By 1570, most residents of Cuba had a mixture of Spanish, African, and Taíno heritages.[52] Cuba developed slowly and, unlike the plantation islands of the Caribbean, had a diversified agriculture. Most importantly, the colony developed as an urbanized society that primarily supported the Spanish colonial empire. By the mid-18th century, there were 50,000 slaves on the island. Estimates suggest that between 1790 and 1820, some 325,000 Africans were imported to Cuba as slaves, which was four times the amount that had arrived between 1760 and 1790.[53]
In 1812, theAponte slave rebellion took place, but it was ultimately suppressed.[54] The population in 1817 was 630,980 (of which 291,021 were white, 115,691 werefree people of color (mixed-race), and 224,268 black slaves).[55] The population in 1841 was 1,007,624, of whom 425,521 were black slaves, 418,291 were white.[56]
By the 19th century, the practice ofcoartacion had developed (or "buying oneself out of slavery", a "uniquely Cuban development").[57] With a shortage of white labor, blacks dominated urban industries to such an extent that when whites in large numbers came to Cuba in the middle of the 19th century, they were unable to displace black workers.[58] A system of diversified agriculture, with small farms and fewer slaves, served to supply the cities with produce and other goods.[58]
In the 1820s, when the rest of Spain's empire in Latin Americarebelled and formed independent states, Cuba remained loyal to Spain. Its economy was based on serving the empire. By 1860, Cuba had 213,167 free people of color (39% of its non-white population of 550,000).[58]
Carlos Manuel de Céspedes is known asFather of the Homeland in Cuba, having declared its independence from Spain in 1868.
Full independence from Spain was the goal of a rebellion in 1868 led by planterCarlos Manuel de Céspedes. De Céspedes, a sugar planter, freed his slaves to fight with him for an independent Cuba.[59] On 27 December 1868, he issued a decree condemning slavery in theory—but accepting it in practice—and declaring free any slaves whose masters presented them for military service.[60] The 1868 rebellion resulted in a prolonged conflict known as theTen Years' War.[59][61] The Cuban rebels were joined by former Dominican colonial officers and volunteers from Canada, Colombia, France, Mexico, the United States, and Chineseindentured servants,[d] but lacked support from wealthy planters and the majority of slaves.[52]
The United States declined to recognize the new Cuban government, although many European and Latin American nations did.[64] In 1878, thePact of Zanjón ended the conflict, with Spain promising greater autonomy to Cuba. In 1879–80, Cuban patriotCalixto García attempted to start another war known as theLittle War but failed to receive enough support.[65][66][67][68]Slavery in Cuba was abolished in 1875, with the process completed by 1886.[69][70] Exiled dissidentJosé Martí founded theCuban Revolutionary Party in New York City in 1892. The party aimed to achieve Cuban independence from Spain.[71] In 1895, Martí traveled toSan Fernando de Monte Cristi andSanto Domingo in the Dominican Republic to join the efforts ofMáximo Gómez.[71] Martí recorded his political views in theManifesto of Montecristi.[72] Fighting against the Spanish army began in Cuba on 24 February 1895, and Martí arrived in April.[71] Martí was killed in theBattle of Dos Rios on 19 May 1895.[71] His death immortalized him as Cuba's national hero.[72]
Around 200,000 Spanish troops outnumbered the much smaller rebel army, which relied mostly onguerrilla andsabotage tactics. The Spaniards began a campaign of suppression. GeneralValeriano Weyler, the military governor of Cuba, herded the rural population into what he calledreconcentrados, described by international observers as "fortified towns". These are often considered the prototype for 20th-centuryconcentration camps.[73] Between 200,000[74] and 400,000 Cuban civilians died from starvation and disease in the Spanish concentration camps, numbers verified by theRed Cross and United States SenatorRedfield Proctor, a formerSecretary of War. American and European protests against Spanish conduct on the island followed.[75][76] The U.S. battleshipUSSMaine was sent to protect American interests, but soon after its arrival, it exploded in theHavana Harbor and sank quickly, killing nearly three-quarters of the crew. The cause and responsibility for the ship's sinking remained unclear after a board of inquiry. Popular opinion in the U.S., fueled by activeyellow press, concluded that the Spanish were to blame and demanded action.[77] Spain and the United States declared war on each other in late April 1898.[78][79][80]
Raising the Cuban flag on the Governor General's palace at noon on 20 May 1902.
After theSpanish–American War, Spain and the United States signed theTreaty of Paris (1898), by which Spain relinquished sovereignty over Cuba and cededPuerto Rico,Guam, and thePhilippines to the United States for the sum ofUS $20 million[81] With the end of U.S. military government jurisdiction, Cuba gained formal independence on 20 May 1902 as the Republic of Cuba.[82] Under Cuba's constitution, the United States retained the right to intervene in Cuban affairs and to supervise its finances and foreign relations. Under thePlatt Amendment, the U.S. leased theGuantánamo Bay Naval Base from Cuba.[83]
Following disputed elections in 1906, the first president,Tomás Estrada Palma, faced an armed revolt by independence war veterans who defeated the meager government forces.[84] The U.S. intervened by occupying Cuba and namedCharles Edward Magoon as governor for three years. Cuban historians have characterized Magoon's governorship as introducing political and social corruption.[85] In 1908, self-government was restored whenJosé Miguel Gómez was elected president, but the U.S. continued intervening in Cuban affairs. In 1912, thePartido Independiente de Color attempted to establish a separateblack republic inOriente Province,[86] but was suppressed by General Monteagudo with considerable bloodshed.
In 1924,Gerardo Machado was elected president.[87] During his administration, tourism increased markedly, and American-owned hotels and restaurants were built to accommodate the influx of tourists.[87] The tourist boom led to increases in gambling andprostitution in Cuba.[87] TheWall Street crash of 1929 led to a collapse in the price of sugar, political unrest, and repression.[88] Protesting students, known as the Generation of 1930, turned to violence in opposition to the increasingly unpopular Machado.[88] A general strike (in which the Communist Party sided with Machado),[89] uprisings among sugar workers, and an army revolt forced Machado into exile in August 1933. He was replaced byCarlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada, son of the revolutionary heroCarlos Manuel de Céspedes.[88]
In September 1933 theSergeants' Revolt, led by SergeantFulgencio Batista, overthrew Céspedes.[90] A five-member executive committee (thePentarchy of 1933) was chosen to head a provisional government.[91]Ramón Grau San Martín was appointed as provisional president.[91] Grau resigned in 1934, leaving the way clear for Batista, who dominated Cuban politics for the next 25 years, at first through a series of puppet presidents.[90] The period from 1933 to 1937 was a time of "virtually unremitting social and political warfare".[92] On balance, during the period 1933–1940, Cuba suffered from fragile political structures, with three presidents in two years (1935–1936) and in the militaristic and repressive policies of Batista as head of the army.
Constitution of 1940
The1940 Constitution of Cuba engineered radically progressive ideas, including the right to labor andright to health care.[93] Batista was elected president in the same year, holding the post until 1944.[94] He is, as of 2004, the only non-white Cuban to win the nation's highest political office.[95][96][97] His government carried out major social reforms. Several members of theCommunist Party held office under his administration.[98] Cuban armed forces were not greatly involved in combat during World War II—though Batista did suggest a joint U.S.-Latin American assault onFrancoist Spain to overthrow its authoritarian regime.[99] Cuba lost six merchant ships during the war, and theCuban Navy was credited with sinking theGerman submarine U-176.[100]
Batista adhered to the 1940 constitution's strictures preventing his re-election.[101] Grau was re-elected president in 1944.[94] Grau further corroded the base of the already teetering legitimacy of the political system, particularly by undermining the Congress and Supreme Court.[102]Carlos Prío Socarrás, a protégé of Grau, became president in 1948.[94] The two terms of thePartido Auténtico brought an influx of investment, which fueled an economic boom, raised living standards for all segments of society, and created a middle class in most urban areas.[103]
Slum (bohío) dwellings in Havana, Cuba in 1954, just outsideHavana baseball stadium. In the background is advertising for a nearbycasino.
After finishing his term in 1944, Batista lived in Florida, returning to Cuba to run for president in 1952. Facing inevitable electoral defeat, he led a military coup that preempted the election.[104] Back in power and receiving financial, military, and logistical support from the United States government, Batista suspended the 1940 constitution and revoked most political liberties, including theright to strike. He then aligned with landowners who owned the largestsugar plantations, and presided over a stagnating economy that widened the gap between rich and poor Cubans.[105] Batista outlawed the Cuban Communist Party in 1952.[106] After the coup, Cuba had Latin America's highest per capita consumption rates of meat, vegetables, cereals, automobiles, telephones and radios, though about one-third of the population was considered poor and enjoyed relatively little of this consumption.[107] However, in his "History Will Absolve Me" speech,Fidel Castro mentioned that national issues relating to land, industrialization, housing, unemployment, education, and health were contemporary problems.[108]
In 1958 Cuba was a well-advanced country compared to other Latin American regions,[109] but it was affected by perhaps Latin America's largest labor union privileges, including bans on dismissals and mechanization. They were obtained in large measure "at the cost of the unemployed and the peasants", leading to disparities.[110] Between 1933 and 1958, Cuba extended economic regulations enormously, causing economic problems.[95][111] Unemployment became a problem as graduates entering the workforce could not find jobs.[95] The middle class became increasingly dissatisfied with unemployment and political persecution. The labor unions, manipulated by the previous government since 1948 through union "yellowness", supported Batista.[95][96]
In the 1950s, various organizations, including some advocating armed uprising, competed for public support in bringing about political change.[112] In 1956, Castro and about 80 supporterslanded from the yachtGranma in an attempt to start a rebellion against the Batista government.[112] In 1958, Castro's26th of July Movement emerged as the leading revolutionary group.[112] The U.S. supported Castro by imposing a1958 arms embargo against Batista's government. Batista evaded the American embargo and acquired weapons from the Dominican Republic.
By late 1958, the rebels had broken out of theSierra Maestra and launched a general popular insurrection. After Castro's fighterscaptured Santa Clara, Batista fled to the Dominican Republic on 1 January 1959 with his family, going into exile in Portugal. Castro's forces entered the capital on 8 January. The liberalManuel Urrutia Lleó became the provisional president.[113] Before the revolution, U.S. and other foreign investors dominated the Cuban economy, controlling 75% of arable land, 90% of essential services, and 40% of sugar production.[52] One of the goals of Castro's revolution was to achieve economic independence, but Cuba instead became heavily dependent on Soviet subsidies, with additional economic aid provided by Eastern European countries throughCOMECON.[114]
Militant anti-Castro groups, funded by theCentral Intelligence Agency (CIA) andRafael Trujillo, carried out armed attacks and set up guerrilla bases in Cuba's mountainous regions. This led to the unsuccessfulEscambray rebellion (1959–65), which lasted longer and involved more soldiers than the Cuban Revolution.[115][116]
The US government initially reacted favorably to the Cuban Revolution, seeing it as part of a movement to bring democracy to Latin America.[117] Castro's legalization of the Communist Party and the hundreds of executions of Batista agents, policemen, and soldiers that followed caused a deterioration in the relationship between the two countries.[117] The promulgation of theAgrarian Reform Law, expropriating thousands of acres of farmland (including from large U.S. landholders), further worsened relations.[117][118] In response, between 1960 and 1964 the U.S. imposed a range of sanctions, eventually including a total ban on trade between the countries and a freeze on all Cuban-owned assets in the U.S.[119] In February 1960, Castro signed a commercial agreement with Soviet Vice-PremierAnastas Mikoyan.[117]
Brigade 2506 prisoners, 1961
In March 1960, U.S. PresidentDwight D. Eisenhower gave his approval to aCIA plan to arm and train a group of Cuban refugees to overthrow the Castro government. The CIA providedB-26 light bombers and ships to the rebels for the invasion. On 15 April 1961 at dawn,Brigade 2506 flew fromPuerto Cabezas, Nicaragua, and carried out preemptive airstrikes on Cuban military airfields at San Antonio de Los Baños, Ciudad Libertad, Pinar del Río, and Santiago de Cuba, destroying five aircraft and damaging an indeterminable number.[120] The invasion (known as theBay of Pigs Invasion) took place on 17 April, during the term of PresidentJohn F. Kennedy.[118] About 1,400 Cuban exiles disembarked at theBay of Pigs. Cuban troops and local militias defeated the invasion by 19 April, killing over 100 invaders and taking the remainder prisoner.[118] Five B-26s were shot down by theCuban air force, and one was downed by anti-aircraft fire.[121] In January 1962, Cuba was suspended from theOrganization of American States (OAS), and imposed sanctions of similar nature to the U.S. sanctions.[122] The failed amphibious assault on Cuba contributed to the Soviet decision to deployR-12 missiles there,[123] and the ensuingCuban Missile Crisis of October 1962 almost sparkedWorld War III.[124][125] In 1962, American generals proposedOperation Northwoods which would entail committing terrorist attacks in American cities and against refugees and falsely blaming the attacks on the Cuban government, manufacturing a reason for the United States to invade Cuba. This plan was rejected by Kennedy.[126] By 1963, Cuba was moving towards a full-fledgedcommunist state system modeled on the USSR.[127]
Since 1959, Cuba has regarded the U.S. presence inGuantánamo Bay as illegal.[20]
Eloy Gutiérrez Menoyo founded the anti-Castro groupAlpha 66 in the early 1960s, which used small craft to attack Cuban and Soviet merchant ships, killing or wounding crew members. In 1964, Menoyo set up a guerrilla training camp in the Dominican Republic, and after entering Cuba in 1965, he was captured; however, Alpha 66 continued its raids under new leadership.[128] By the mid-1960s, Soviet aid had strengthened the Cuban air force and navy, making raids costly without significant U.S. support.[129]
Starting in 1968, a campaign titled the "revolutionary offensive" was initiated to nationalize some 58,000 remaining private small businesses.[132] The campaign would spur industrialization in Cuba and focus the economy on sugar production, with a goal of 10 million tons by 1970. The economic focus on sugar production involved international volunteers and the mobilization of workers from all sectors of the economy.[133] Economic mobilization coincided with greater militarization of political structures and society in general.[134] The harvest goal was not reached.[135]: 37–38 The economy fell into decline after large sectors were neglected after urban labor was mobilized to the countryside.[135]: 38
The standard of living in the 1970s was "extremely spartan," and discontent was rife.[136] Castro admitted the failures of economic policies in a 1970 speech.[136] In 1975, the OAS lifted its sanctions against Cuba with the approval of 16 member states, including the United States. The U.S., however, maintained its own sanctions.[122] According toAmnesty International, official death sentences from 1959 to 1987 numbered 237, of which all but 21 were carried out.[137] The vast majority of those executed directly following the 1959 Revolution were policemen, politicians, and informers of the Batista regime accused of crimes such as torture and murder, and their public trials and executions had widespread popular support among the Cuban population.[138]
During the Cold War, Cuba received $33 billion in Soviet aid,[114] and Cuban forces were deployed to all corners of Africa, either as military advisors or as combatants.[139] Soviet pilots and technicians assumed defense duties in Cuba, freeing up personnel to be deployed in Africa.[131] In 1979, the U.S. objected to the presence ofSoviet combat troops on the island.[52]
In November 1975, Cuba deployed more than 65,000 troops and 400 Soviet-made tanks in Angola in one of the fastest military mobilizations in history.[140]South Africa developed nuclear weapons because of the threat to its security posed by the presence of large numbers ofCuban troops in Angola.[141] In 1975–76 and again in 1988 at theBattle of Cuito Cuanavale, the Cubans alongside their MPLA allies foughtUNITA rebels andapartheid South African forces. In December 1977, Cuba sent its combat troops from Angola, the People's Republic of the Congo, and the Caribbean to Ethiopia,[131] assisted by mechanized Soviet battalions, to help defeat a Somali invasion. On 24 January 1978, Ethiopian and Cuban troops counterattacked, inflicting 3,000 casualties on the Somali forces.[131] In February, Cuban troops launched a major offensive and forced the Somali army back into its own territory.[131] Cuban forces remained in Ethiopia until September 1989.[131]
Despite its small size and the long distance separating it from the Middle East, Cuba played an active role in the region during the Cold War. In 1972, a major military mission consisting of tank, air, and artillery specialists was dispatched toSouth Yemen. Cuban military advisors were sent to Iraq in the mid-1970s, but their mission was canceled after Iraq invaded Iran in 1980.[131] The Cubans were also involved in the Syrian-Israeli conflict in 1973 and 1974 that followed theYom Kippur War.[142] Israeli sources reported the presence of a Cuban tank brigade in theGolan Heights, which was supported by two brigades.[143] Tank forces engaged in battle on the Golan front.[144]: 37–38
After the U.S. was defeated by communist forces in theVietnam War, Castro began supporting Marxist insurgencies inGuatemala,El Salvador,Nicaragua, andColombia by supplying weapons, munitions, and training.[145] Following the 1983 coup that resulted in the execution of Grenadian Prime MinisterMaurice Bishop and establishment of the military government led byHudson Austin,U.S. forces invaded Grenada in 1983, overthrowing the pro-Castro government. In a few days of fighting, 6,000 American combat troops defeated 784 Cubans (636 construction workers with military training, 43 military advisors, and 18 diplomats).[146]
Cuba gradually withdrew its troops from Angola in 1989–91.[131] An important psychological and political aspect of the Cuban military involvement in Africa was the significant presence of black or mixed-race soldiers among the Cuban forces. According to one source, more than 300,000 Cuban military personnel and civilian experts were deployed in Africa. The source also states that out of the 50,000 Cubans sent to Angola, half contracted AIDS, and that 10,000 Cubans died as a consequence of their military actions in Africa.[131]
Cuban leaderFidel Castro in Geneva, Switzerland, May 1998
Soviet troops began to withdraw from Cuba in September 1991,[52] and Castro's rule was severely tested in the aftermath of theSoviet collapse in December 1991 (known in Cuba as theSpecial Period). The country faced a severe economic downturn following the withdrawal of Soviet subsidies worth$4 billion to$6 billion annually, resulting in effects such as food and fuel shortages.[147][148] The government did not accept American donations of food, medicines and cash until 1993.[147] On 5 August 1994, state security dispersed protesters in aspontaneous protest in Havana. From the start of the crisis until 1995, Cuba saw its gross domestic product (GDP) shrink by 35%. It took another five years for its GDP to reach pre-crisis levels.[149] In 1996, after Cuban fighter jetsshot down two small aircraft piloted by a Florida-based anti-Castro group, the U.S. Congress passed theHelms–Burton Act, strengthening U.S. embargoes.[52]
Cuba then found a new source of aid and support in the People's Republic of China. In addition, Castro, Venezuelan PresidentHugo Chávez and Bolivian PresidentEvo Morales became allies, and both countries began to support the Cuban economy. In 2003, the government arrested and imprisoned a large number of civil activists, a period known as the"Black Spring".[150][151]
In February 2008, Castro resigned as President of the State Council due to illness.[152] On 24 February, theNational Assembly elected his brotherRaúl Castro as president.[153] In his inauguration speech, Raúl promised that some of the restrictions on freedom in Cuba would be removed.[154] In March 2009, Raúl Castroremoved some of his brother's appointees.[155] In 2009 the OAS adopted a resolution to end the 47-year ban on Cuban membership of the group.[156] The resolution stated, however, that full membership would be delayed until Cuba was "in conformity with the practices, purposes, and principles of the OAS".[122] Fidel Castro wrote that Cuba would not rejoin the OAS, which he said was a "U.S. Trojan horse" and "complicit" in actions taken by the U.S. against Cuba and other Latin American nations.[157]
Raúl Castro and U.S. PresidentBarack Obama at their joint press conference in Havana, Cuba, 21 March 2016
In 2013 Cuba ended the requirement established in 1961 that any citizens who wished to travel abroad were required to obtain an expensive government permit and a letter of invitation.[158][159][160] In 1961 the Cuban government had imposed broad restrictions on travel to prevent the mass emigration of people after the 1959 revolution;[161] it approved exit visas only on rare occasions.[162] In the first year of the program, over 180,000 left Cuba and returned. Talks with American officials, including PresidentBarack Obama, resulted in the 2014 release ofAlan Gross, 52 political prisoners, and an unnamed non-citizen agent of the United States in return for the release of three Cubans who had been convicted of espionage in the United States. The embargo between the United States and Cuba was relaxed to allow import, export, and certain limited commerce.[163]
Cuba approved a new constitution in 2019. The optional vote attracted 84.4% of eligible voters; 90% of those who voted approved the constitution, and 9% opposed it. The constitution states that the Communist Party is the only legitimate political party, describes access to health and education as fundamental rights, imposes presidential term limits, enshrines the right to legal representation upon arrest, recognizes private property, and strengthens the rights of multinationals investing with the state.[165] Any form of discrimination harmful to human dignity is banned under the constitution.[166]
The2024–2025 Cuba blackouts were the most severe living crisis that the country has experienced since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.[175][176] Díaz-Canel blamed the blackout on theUnited States embargo against Cuba, which he said prevented much needed supplies and replacement parts from reaching Cuba.[176]
In February 2026, followingUnited States intervention in Venezuela, which was a major oil supplier to Cuba, and expansion of US sanctions on trade with Cuba[177], Cuba experienced widespread energy shortages, resulting in rolling blackouts, hospital shortages and flight cancellations[178].
Cuba is the principal island, surrounded by four smaller groups of islands: theColorados Archipelago on the northwestern coast, theSabana-Camagüey Archipelago on the north-central Atlantic coast, theJardines de la Reina on the south-central coast and theCanarreos Archipelago on the southwestern coast. The main island, named Cuba, is 1,250 km (780 mi) long, constituting most of the nation's land area (104,338 km2 or 40,285 sq mi) and is the largest island in theCaribbean and17th-largest island in the world. The main island consists mostly of flat to rolling plains apart from theSierra Maestra mountains in the southeast, whose highest point isPico Turquino (1,974 m or 6,476 ft). The second-largest island isIsla de la Juventud in the Canarreos Archipelago, with an area of 2,204 km2 (851 sq mi). Cuba has an official area of 109,884 km2 (42,426 sq mi). Its area is 110,860 km2 (42,803 sq mi) according to theCIA.
With the entire island south of theTropic of Cancer, the local climate is tropical, moderated by northeasterlytrade winds that blow year-round. The temperature is also shaped by theCaribbean Current which brings in warm water from the Equator. This makes the climate of Cuba warmer than that of Hong Kong, which is at around the same latitude as Cuba but has a subtropical rather than a tropical climate. In general (with local variations), there is a drier season from November to April, and a rainier season from May to October. The average temperature is 21 °C (70 °F) in January and 27 °C (81 °F) in July. The warm temperatures of the Caribbean Sea and the fact that Cuba sits across the entrance to the Gulf of Mexico combine to make the country prone to frequenthurricanes. These are most common in September and October.
Climate change is causing an increase in temperature,rising sea levels and shifting precipitation patterns, with an overall decrease in rainfall predicted. These will severely impact industries key to the economy, including agriculture, forestry and tourism. As rainfall is Cuba's only water source, water security is an issue. Warmer temperatures may affect the health of the population, causing an increase in cardiovascular, respiratory and viral diseases.[179] A temperature rise of 2 °C above preindustrial levels can increase the likelihood of extreme hurricane rainfall by three times in Cuba.[180]Climate change mitigation andadaptation plans includerenewable energy generation andnature-based solutions, such as restoringmangrove ecosystems.[181][182]
Hurricane Irma hit the island on 8 September 2017, with winds of 260 km/h (160 mph),[183] at the Camagüey Archipelago.[184] The worst damage was in the keys north of the main island. Hospitals, warehouses and factories were damaged; much of the north coast was without electricity. Nearly one million people, including tourists, were evacuated.[185] TheVaradero resort area reported widespread damage.[186] Ten people were killed during the storm, including seven in Havana, most during building collapses. Sections of the capital had been flooded.[186]
Biodiversity
TheCuban trogon is the island's national bird. Its white, red and blue feathers match those of theCuban flag.
Cuba's national legislature, the National Assembly of People's Power (Asamblea Nacional de Poder Popular), is thesupreme state organ of power; 470 members serve five-year terms.[196] The assembly meets twice a year; between sessions legislative power is held by the 31 member Council of Ministers. Candidates for the Assembly are approved by public referendum. All Cuban citizens over 16 who have not been convicted of a criminal offense can vote.[200] Article 131 of the constitution states that voting shall be "through free, equal and secret vote".[196] Article 136 states: "In order for deputies or delegates to be considered elected they must get more than half the number of valid votes cast in the electoral districts".[196]
Elections in Cuba are not considered democratic.[201][202] In elections for the National Assembly of People's Power there is only one candidate for each seat, and candidates are nominated by committees that are firmly controlled by the Communist Party.[203][204] Most legislative districts elect multiple representatives to the Assembly. Voters can select individual candidates on theirballot, select every candidate, or leave every question blank, with no option to vote against candidates.[205][206]Nopolitical party is permitted to nominate candidates or campaign on the island, including the Communist Party.[207] The Communist Party of Cuba has held six party congress meetings since 1975. In 2011, the party stated that there were 800,000 members, and representatives generally constitute at least half of the Councils of state and the National Assembly. The remaining positions are filled by candidates nominally without party affiliation. Other political parties campaign and raise finances internationally, while activity byopposition groups is minimal.
Miguel Díaz-Canel was elected president on 18 April 2018 after the resignation of Raúl Castro. On 19 April 2021, Díaz-Canel became First Secretary of the Communist Party. He is the first non-Castro to be in such top position since the Cuban Revolution of 1959.[215]
The country is subdivided into 15 provinces and one special municipality (Isla de la Juventud). These were formerly part of six larger historical provinces: Pinar del Río, Habana, Matanzas, Las Villas, Camagüey and Oriente. The present subdivisions closely resemble those of the Spanish military provinces during the Cuban Wars of Independence, when the most troublesome areas were subdivided. The provinces are divided into municipalities.
In 2008, the European Union and Cuba agreed to resume full relations and cooperation activities.[228] Cuba is a founding member of theBolivarian Alliance for the Americas.[229] Tens of thousands of Cuban medical personnel have worked abroad,[230] with as many as 30,000 doctors in Venezuela alone via the two countries' oil-for-doctors programme.[231]
In the wake of theRussian invasion of Ukraine and the ongoing international isolation of Russia, Cuba emerged as one of the few countries that maintained friendly relations with the Russian Federation.[232][233] Diaz-Canel visitedVladimir Putin in Moscow in November 2022, where the two leaders opened a monument of Fidel Castro, as well as speaking out against U.S. sanctions against Russia and Cuba.[234]
Since 1960, the U.S. embargo on Cuba stands as one of the longest-running trade and economic measures in bilateral relations history, having endured for over six decades. This action was initiated in response to a wave of nationalizations that impacted American properties valued at over US$1 billion. U.S.[30] American diplomatLester D. Mallory wrote an internal memo on 6 April 1960, arguing in favor of an embargo: "The only foreseeable means of alienating internal support is through disenchantment and disaffection based on economic dissatisfaction and hardship. [...] to decrease monetary and real wages, to bring about hunger, desperation and overthrow of government."[235][236] President Dwight Eisenhower instated an embargo that prohibited all exports to Cuba, with the exception of medicines and certain foods.[30] This measure was intensified in 1962 under the administration of John F. Kennedy, extending the restrictions to Cuban imports, based on the Foreign Assistance Act approved by Congress in 1961.[30] During the Missile Crisis in 1962, the United States even imposed a naval blockade on Cuba, but this was lifted following the resolution of the crisis. The embargo, however, remained in place and has been modified on several occasions over the years.[30]
TheCuban Democracy Act of 1992 states that sanctions will continue "so long as it continues to refuse to move toward democratization and greater respect for human rights".[237][non-primary source needed] TheUN General Assembly has passed a resolution every year since 1992 condemning the embargo and stating that it violates theCharter of the United Nations and international law.[238] Cuba considers the embargo a human rights violation.[239] The impact and effectiveness of the embargo have been subjects of intense debate. While some argue it has been "extraordinarily porous" and is not the primary cause of Cuba's economic hardships, others see it as a pressure mechanism aimed at driving change in the Cuban government.[30] According to Arturo Lopez Levy, a professor of international relations, it would be more appropriate to refer to the measure as a "blockade" or "siege", as it goes beyond mere trade restrictions.[30] Other critics of the Cuban government argue that the embargo has been used by the government as an excuse to justify its own economic and political shortcomings.[30]
In 1996, the United States passed the Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity Act, better known as theHelms–Burton Act, which strengthens and continues the United States embargo against Cuba.[240][e] In 2009, United States PresidentBarack Obama stated "the United States seeks a new beginning with Cuba",[242] and he reversed theBush Administration's prohibition on travel and remittances by Cuban-Americans from the United States to Cuba.[243] In 2014 an agreement between the United States and Cuba, popularly called the "Cuban thaw", brokered in part by Canada andPope Francis, began the process of restoring international relations between the two countries. They agreed to release political prisoners, and in 2015 the United States opened an embassy in Havana.[244][245][246][247][248][249] and reestablished diplomatic relations.[250] In 2015 Obama announced he would remove Cuba from the American government's list of nations that sponsor terrorism,[251][252] which Cuba reportedly welcomed as "fair".[253] On 17 September 2017, the United States considered closing its Cuban embassy following mysteriousmedical symptoms experienced by its staff.[254]
The diplomatic relations set in place by Obama were later reversed by theTrump Administration, which enacted new rules and re-enforced the business and travel restrictions which were loosened by the Obama Administration.[255] These sanctions were inherited and strengthened by theBiden Administration.[256]
As of 2018[update], Cuba spent aboutUS$91.8 million on its armed forces or 2.9% of its GDP.[257] In 1985, Cuba devoted more than 10% of its GDP to military expenditures.[258] During the Cold War, Cuba built up the largest per capita armed forces in Latin America, funded and equipped by the Soviet Union.[259] From 1975 until the late 1980s,Soviet military assistance enabled Cuba to upgrade its military capabilities. After the loss of Soviet subsidies, Cuba scaled down the numbers of military personnel, from 235,000 in 1994 to about 49,000 in 2021.[260]
In 2017, Cuba signed the UN treaty on theProhibition of Nuclear Weapons.[261] Since signing a defense pact with Belarus in January 2024, Cuba has upgraded itsS-125 Pechora air defense systems with Belarusian support,[262] but it does not have a modern networked air defense system.
According to theGlobal Peace Index, Cuba has a medium state of peace ranked 102 out of 163 countries.[263]
Civilians are also involved in law enforcement, in a limited capacity. TheCommittees for the Defense of the Revolution are an officialneighborhood watch organization, made up of dedicated citizens who monitor their neighborhoods.[266] Membership is not selective, but leading members are approved by the Cuban Communist Party.[267]
In 2003, the EU accused the Cuban government of "continuing flagrant violation of human rights and fundamental freedoms".[268] As of 2009,[update] it has continued to call regularly for social and economic reform, along with the unconditional release of allpolitical prisoners.[269] In July 2010, the unofficial Cuban Human Rights Commission said there were 167 political prisoners in Cuba, a fall from 201 at the start of the year. The head of the commission stated that long prison sentences were being replaced by harassment and intimidation.[270] Cuba was ranked 19th by the number of imprisoned journalists of any nation in 2021[update] according to various sources, including theCommittee to Protect Journalists and Human Rights Watch.[271][272] Cuba ranks 171st out of 180 on the 2020[update]World Press Freedom Index.[273]
The Cuban state asserts its adherence to socialist principles in organizing its largely state-controlledplanned economy. Most of themeans of production are owned and run by the government, and most of the labor force is employed by the state. Recent years have seen a trend toward more private sector employment. By 2006, public sector employment was 78% and private sector 22%, compared to 91.8% to 8.2% in 1981.[274] Government spending is 78.1% of GDP.[275] Since the early 2010s, following the initial market reforms, it has become popular to describe the economy as being, or moving toward,market socialism.[276][277][278] Any firm that hires a Cuban must pay the Cuban government, which in turn pays the employee inCuban pesos (CUP).[279] After a reform in 2021, the minimum monthly wage is about 2100 CUP (US$81), and the median monthly wage is about 4000 CUP (US$155).[280] According to Carmelo Mesa-Lago, there is widespread consensus that the policies of the revolutionary government decreased poverty until the end of the Cold War.[281] Every Cuban household has a ration book (known aslibreta) entitling it to a monthly supply of food and other staples, which are provided at nominal cost.[282]
According to the Havana Consulting Group, in 2014,remittances to Cuba were more than US$3 million, the seventh highest in Latin America.[283] In 2019, remittances had grown to US$6,616 million, but dropped down to US$1,967 million in 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic.[284] The pandemic devastated Cuba's tourist industry, which along with a tightening of U.S. sanctions, led to large increase in emigration among younger working-age Cubans. It has been described as a crisis that is "threatening the stability" of Cuba, which "already has one of the hemisphere's oldest populations".[285] According to a controversial 2023 report by the Cuban Observatory of Human Rights, 88% of Cuban citizens live in extreme poverty. The report states that Cubans were concerned about food security and the difficulty in acquiring basic goods.[286]
In 2005, Cuba had exports ofUS$2.4 billion, ranking 114 of 226 world countries, and imports ofUS$6.9 billion, ranking 87 of 226 countries.[291] Its major export partners are Canada 17.7%, China 16.9%, Venezuela 12.5%, Netherlands 9%, and Spain 5.9% (2012).[292] Major exports include sugar, nickel, tobacco, fish, medical products, citrus fruits, and coffee;[292] imports include food, fuel, clothing, and machinery. Cuba presently holds debt in an amount estimated at$13 billion,[293] approximately 38% of GDP.[294] Cuba's prior 35% supply of the world's export market for sugar has declined to 10% due to a variety of factors, including a global sugar commodity price drop that made Cuba less competitive on world markets.[295] It was announced in 2008 that wage caps would be abandoned to improve the nation's productivity.[296]
Cuba's leadership has called for reforms in the country'sagricultural system. In 2008, Raúl Castro began enacting agrarian reforms to boost food production, as at that time 80% of food was imported. The reforms aim to expand land use and increase efficiency.[297] Venezuela supplies Cuba with an estimated 110,000 barrels (17,000 m3) of oil per day in exchange for money and the services of some 44,000 Cubans, most of them medical personnel, in Venezuela.[298][299]
Cubans are now permitted to own small businesses in certain sectors.
In 2010[update], Cubans were allowed to build their own houses. According to Raúl Castro, they could now improve their houses, but the government would not endorse these new houses or improvements.[300] There is virtually no homelessness in Cuba,[301][302] and 85% of Cubans own their homes[303] and pay no property taxes or mortgage interest.
On 2 August 2011,The New York Times reported that Cuba reaffirmed its intent to legalize "buying and selling" of private property before the year's end. According to experts, the private sale of property could "transform Cuba more than any of the economic reforms announced by Cuban leader Raúl Castro's government".[304] It would cut more than one million state jobs, including party bureaucrats who resist the changes.[305] The reforms created what some call "New Cuban Economy".[306][307] In October 2013, Raúl said he intended to merge the two currencies, but as of August 2016[update], the dual currency system remains in force.
In 2016, theMiami Herald wrote, "... about 27 percent of Cubans earn under $50 per month; 34 percent earn the equivalent of $50 to $100 per month; and 20 percent earn $101 to $200. Twelve percent reported earning $201 to $500 a month; and almost 4 percent said their monthly earnings topped $500, including 1.5 percent who said they earned more than $1,000."[308]
In May 2019, Cuba imposed rationing of staples such as chicken, eggs, rice, beans, soap and other basic goods. (Some two-thirds of food in the country is imported.) A spokesperson blamed the increased U.S. trade embargo although economists believe that an equally important problem is the massive decline of aid from Venezuela and the failure of Cuba's state-run oil company which had subsidized fuel costs.[309]
In June 2019, the government announced an increase in public sector wages of about 300%, specifically for teachers and health personnel.[310] In October, the government allowed stores to purchase house equipment and similar items, using international currency, and send it to Cuba by emigration. The leaders of the government recognized that the new measures were unpopular but necessary to contain the capital flight to other countries as Panamá where Cuban citizens traveled and imported items to resell on the island. Other measures included allowing private companies to export and import, through state companies, resources to produce products and services in Cuba.
On 1 January 2021, Cuba's dual currency system was formally ended, and theconvertible Cuban peso (CUC) was phased out, leaving theCuban peso (CUP) as the country's sole currency unit. Cuban citizens had until June 2021 to exchange their CUCs. However, this devalued the Cuban peso and caused economic problems for people who had been previously paid in CUCs, particularly workers in the tourism industry.[311][312][313] Also, in February, the government dictated new measures to the private sector, with prohibitions for only 124 activities,[314] in areas like national security, health and educational services.[315] The wages were increased again, between 4 and 9 times, for all the sectors. Also, new facilities were allowed to the state companies, with much more autonomy.[312]
The first problem with the new reform, in terms of public opinion, were electricity prices, but that was amended quickly. Other measures corrected were in the prices for private farmers.[citation needed] In July 2020, Cuba opened new stores accepting only foreign currency while simultaneously eliminating a special tax on the U.S. dollar[316] to combat an economic crisis arising initially due to economic sanctions imposed by the Trump administration,[317] then later worsened by a lack of tourism during thecoronavirus pandemic. These economic sanctions have since been sustained by the Biden administration.[318]Cooperatives will play a larger role in the emerging Cuban economy. The transfer of state-run businesses into cooperatives could result in 20 – 30 percent of Cuba's workers being actively involved in cooperatives. All state-run restaurants (over 8,000) will be converted to worker owned cooperatives, and by 2017 the Cuban government expects there to be approximately 10,000 cooperatives operating.[319]
According to 2019 data, China stands as Cuba's main trading partner, followed by countries such as Spain, the Netherlands, Germany, and Cyprus. Cuba's main exports include tobacco, sugar, and alcoholic beverages, while it primarily imports chicken meat, wheat, corn, and condensed milk.[30]
Resources
Cuba's natural resources include sugar, tobacco, fish, citrus fruits,coffee, beans, rice, potatoes, and livestock. Cuba's most important mineral resource is nickel, with 21% of total exports in 2011.[320] The output of Cuba's nickel mines that year was 71,000 tons, approaching 4% of world production.[321] As of 2013[update] its reserves were estimated at 5.5 million tons, over 7% of the world total.[321]Sherritt International of Canada operates a large nickel mining facility inMoa. Cuba is also a major producer of refinedcobalt, a by-product of nickel mining.[322]
Oil exploration in 2005 by theUS Geological Survey revealed that the North Cuba Basin could produce about 4.6 billion barrels (730,000,000 m3) to 9.3 billion barrels (1.48×109 m3) of oil. In 2006, Cuba started to test-drill these locations for possible exploitation.[323]
Historic Centre ofCamagüey, a colonial city UNESCO World Heritage SiteVaradero resort area
Tourism was initially restricted to enclave resorts where tourists would be segregated from Cuban society, referred to as "enclave tourism" and "tourism apartheid".[324] Contact between foreign visitors and ordinary Cubans werede facto illegal between 1992 and 1997.[325] The rapid growth of tourism during the Special Period had widespread social and economic repercussions in Cuba, and led to speculation about the emergence of a two-tier economy.[326]
1.9 million tourists visited Cuba in 2003, predominantly from Canada and the European Union, generating revenue ofUS$2.1 billion.[327] Cuba recorded 2,688,000 international tourists in 2011, the third-highest figure in the Caribbean (behind the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico).[328] American tourism was incredibly limited due to the Cuban Missile Crisis until 2016, when most restrictions were limited but some remained in place.[329]
A study in 2018 indicated that Cuba has a potential formountaineering activity, and that mountaineering could be a key contributor to tourism, along with other activities, e.g. biking, diving, caving. Promoting these resources could contribute to regional development, prosperity, and well-being.[330]
The Cuban Justice minister downplays allegations of widespreadsex tourism.[331] According to a Government of Canada travel advice website, "Cuba is actively working to prevent child sex tourism, and a number of tourists, including Canadians, have been convicted of offenses related to the corruption of minors aged 16 and under. Prison sentences range from 7 to 25 years."[332]
According to the official census of 2010, Cuba's population was 11,241,161, comprising 5,628,996 men and 5,612,165 women.[333] Itsbirth rate (9.88 births per thousand population in 2006)[334] is one of the lowest in theWestern Hemisphere. Although the country's population has grown by about four million people since 1961, the rate of growth slowed during that period, and the population began to decline in 2006, due to the country's lowfertility rate (1.43 children per woman) coupled with emigration.[335]
Cuba's population is multiethnic, reflecting its complex colonial origins. Intermarriage between diverse groups is widespread, and consequently there is some discrepancy in reports of the country's racial composition: whereas the Institute for Cuban and Cuban-American Studies at theUniversity of Miami determined that 62% of Cubans are black using theone drop rule,[338] the 2002 Cuban census found that a similar proportion of the population, 65.05%, was white. In fact, theMinority Rights Group International determined that "An objective assessment of the situation ofAfro-Cubans remains problematic due to scant records and a paucity of systematic studies both pre- and post-revolution. Estimates of the percentage of people of African descent in the Cuban population vary enormously, ranging from 34% to 62%".[339] A 2014 study found that, based onancestry informative markers,autosomal genetic ancestry is 72% European, 20% African, and 8% Indigenous.[340]
Asians make up about 1% of the population and are largely ofChinese ancestry, followed byJapanese andFilipino.[341][342] Many are descendants of farm laborers brought to the island by Spanish and American contractors during the 19th and early 20th century.[343] The current recorded number of Cubans with Chinese ancestry is 114,240.[344]
Immigration and emigration have played a prominent part in Cuba's demographic profile. Between the 18th and early 20th century, large waves ofCanarian,Catalan,Andalusian,Galician, and other Spanish people immigrated to Cuba. Between 1899 and 1930 alone, nearly one million Spaniards entered Cuba, although many eventually returned to Spain.[346] Other prominent immigrant groups included French,[347]Portuguese, Italian, Russian,Dutch,Greek, British, and Irish, as well as small number of descendants of U.S. citizens who arrived in Cuba in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. As of 2015, the foreign-born population in Cuba was 13,336 inhabitants per theWorld Bank data.[348]
Post-revolution Cuba has been characterized by significant levels of emigration, which has led to alarge and influential diaspora community. During the three decades after January 1959, more than one million Cubans of all social classes—constituting 10% of the total population—emigrated to the United States, a proportion that matches the extent of emigration to the U.S. from the Caribbean as a whole during that period.[349][350][351][352][353] Prior to 13 January 2013, Cuban citizens could not travel abroad, leave or return to Cuba without first obtaining official permission along with applying for a government-issued passport and travel visa, which was often denied.[354] Those who left the country typically did so by sea, in small boats and fragile rafts.
On 9 September 1994, the U.S. and Cuban governments agreed that the U.S. would grant at least 20,000 visas annually in exchange for Cuba's pledge to prevent further unlawful departures on boats.[355]
In the 2020s Cuba is undergoing its most severe socioeconomic crisis since thefall of the Soviet Union, leading to a record number of Cubans fleeing the island.[356] The number of Cubans trying to enter the United States, primarily through theMexican border, surged from 39,000 in 2021 to over 224,000 in 2022. In 2022, more than 2% of the population (almost 250,000 Cubans out of 11 million) migrated to the United States, and thousands more went to other countries, a number "larger than the 1980Mariel boatlift and the1994 Cuban rafter crisis combined", which were Cuba's previous largest migration events.[285] Many resorted to selling their homes at very low prices to afford one-way flights toNicaragua, hoping to travel through Mexico to reach the U.S.[356] Internal migration has led to overpopulation in Havana, resulting in people living in makeshift shelters or overcrowded buildings, some of which are on the brink of collapse. Regular power outages harken back to the early 1990s, a time when Soviet subsidies ended, plunging the island into economic hardship.[356] Emigration has continued into the 2020s, with the national population dipping below 10 million for the first time since 1980 in 2025. This signifies a 13% loss of population since 2012, when the Cuban population peaked at 11.2 million.[357]
Cuba's "Special Period" saw the country relying heavily on foreign tourism and the earnings of nationals working abroad. The 2020 pandemic, however, severely affected this revenue stream, decreasing the number of tourists by 75% in 2020. Monetary reforms in 2021 introduced shocks of inflation, further exacerbating the country's food scarcity and boosting the black market's prominence.[356] Despite the increasing hardships, the Cuban spirit remains resilient. Access to the internet since 2018 and widespread use of social media have fueled calls for political and economic liberalization. The power of the internet was evident during the Cuban protests of 2021, which were promptly suppressed by the police, with many prominent artists and bloggers detained.[356]
As of 2013 the top emigration destinations were the United States, Spain, Italy, Puerto Rico, and Mexico.[358]
Cuba is officially a secular state. Religious freedom increased through the 1980s,[363] with the government amending the constitution in 1992 to drop the state's characterization as atheistic.[364] In 2010, thePew Forum estimated that religious affiliation is 59.2% Christian, 23% unaffiliated, 17.4%folk religion (such assantería), and the remaining 0.4% consisting of other religions.[365] In a 2015 survey sponsored by Univision, 44% of Cubans said they were not religious, and 9% did not give an answer while only 34% said they were Christian.[366]
Roman Catholicism is the largest religion, with its origins in Spanish colonization. Despite less than half of the population identifying as Catholics in 2006, it nonetheless remains the dominant faith.[367] Pope John Paul II and Pope Benedict XVI visited Cuba in 1998 and 2011, respectively, and Pope Francis visited in 2015.[368][369] Prior to each papal visit, the government pardoned prisoners as a humanitarian gesture.[370][371]
The government's relaxation of restrictions onhouse churches in the 1990s led to an explosion ofPentecostalism, with some groups claiming as many as 100,000 members. However,Evangelical Protestant denominations, organized into the umbrella Cuban Council of Churches, remain much more vibrant and powerful.[372] Several well-known Cuban religious figures have operated outside the island, including the humanitarian and authorJorge Armando Pérez.
The religious landscape of is strongly defined bysyncretisms of various kinds. Christianity is often practiced in tandem with santería, a mixture of Catholicism and mostly African faiths, which include a number of cults. La Virgen de la Caridad del Cobre (the Virgin ofCobre) is the Catholic patroness of Cuba, and a symbol of Cuban culture. In Santería, she has been syncretized with the goddessOshun. A breakdown of the followers of Afro-Cuban religions showed that most practitioners ofPalo Mayombe were black and dark brown-skinned, most practitioners ofVodú were medium brown and light brown-skinned, and most practitioners of Santeria were light brown and white-skinned.[373]
TheUniversity of Havana was founded in 1728, and there are several other well-establishedcolleges and universities. In 1957, just before Castro came to power, the literacy rate was as low as fourth in Latin America at 76% according to the United Nations, yet higher than in Spain.[109] Castro created an entirely state-operated system and banned private institutions. School attendance is compulsory from ages six to the end of basic secondary education (normally at age 15), and all students, regardless of age or gender, wear school uniforms with the color denoting grade level. Primary education lasts for six years, secondary education is divided into basic and pre-university education.[375] Cuba'sliteracy rate of 99.8 percent[292][376] is eight points higher than the Caribbean average[22] and thetenth-highest globally, largely due to the provision of free education at every level.[377] The high school graduation rate is 94 percent.[378]
Higher education is provided by universities, higher institutes, higherpedagogical institutes, and higherpolytechnic institutes. The Ministry of Higher Education operates a distance education program that provides regular afternoon and evening courses in rural areas for agricultural workers. Education has a strong political and ideological emphasis, and students progressing to higher education are expected to have a commitment to the goals of Cuba.[375] Cuba has provided free education to foreign nationals from disadvantaged backgrounds at theLatin American School of Medicine.[379][380]
After the revolution, Cuba established a free public health system.[25] Cuba'slife expectancy at birth is 80.1 years (77.8 for males and 82.6 for females), ranked 58th in the world and 5th in the Americas.[381] Infant mortality declined from 32 infant deaths per 1,000 live births in 1957, to 10 in 1990–95,[382] 6.1 in 2000–2005 and 5.13 in 2009.[376][292] Historically, Cuba has ranked high in numbers of medical personnel and has made significant contributions to world health since the 19th century.[109]
Cuba hasuniversal health care, and despite persistent shortages of medical supplies, there is no shortage of medical personnel.[383] Primary care is available throughout the island, and infant and maternal mortality rates compare favorably with those in developed nations.[383] That an impoverished nation like Cuba has health outcomes rivaling the developed world is referred to by researchers as the Cuban Health Paradox.[384] Cuba ranks 29th on the 2024 Bloomberg Healthiest Country Index, the highest ranking of a developing country.[385] The healthcare system, renowned for its medical services, has emphasized the export of health professionals through international missions, aiding global health efforts.[386] However, while these missions generate significant revenue and serve as a tool for political influence, domestically, Cuba faces challenges including medication shortages and disparities between medical services for locals and foreigners.[386] Despite the income from these missions, only a small fraction of the national budget has been allocated to public health, underscoring contrasting priorities within the nation's healthcare strategy.[386]
Disease and infant mortality increased in the 1960s immediately after the revolution, when half of Cuba's 6,000 doctors left the country.[387] Recovery occurred by the 1980s,[96] and the country's health care has been widely praised.[388] The Communist government stated that universal health care was a priority of state planning and progress was made in rural areas.[389] After the revolution, the government increased rural hospitals from one to 62.[25] Like the rest of the Cuban economy, medical care suffered from severe material shortages following the end of Soviet subsidies in 1991, and a tightening of the U.S. embargo in 1992.[390] Challenges include low salaries for doctors,[26] poor facilities, poor provision of equipment, and the frequent absence of essential drugs.[27]
Cuba has the highest doctor-to-population ratio in the world and has sent thousands of doctors to more than 40 countries around the world.[391] According to theWorld Health Organization, Cuba is "known the world over for its ability to train excellent doctors and nurses who can then go out to help other countries in need".[392] In 2014 there were around 50,000 Cuban-trained health care workers aiding 66 nations.[393] Cuban physicians have played a leading role in combating theEbola virus epidemic in West Africa.[394]Preventative medicine is very important within the Cuban medical system, which provides citizens with easy to obtain regular health checks.[25]
Import and export ofpharmaceutical drugs is done by the Quimefa Pharmaceutical Business Group (FARMACUBA) under the Ministry of Basic Industry. This group also provides technical information for the production of these drugs.[395] Isolated from the West by the US embargo, Cuba developed the successful lung cancer vaccine,Cimavax, which is now available to US researchers for the first time, along with other novel Cuban cancer treatments. The vaccine has been available for free to the Cuban population since 2011.[396] According toRoswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center CEO Candace Johnson: "They've had to do more with less, so they've had to be even more innovative with how they approach things. For over 40 years, they have had a preeminent immunology community."[397] During the thaw in Cuba–U.S. relations, many U.S. lung cancer patients traveled to Cuba to receive vaccine treatment. The end of the thaw under the Trump Administration resulted in a tightening of travel restrictions, making it harder for U.S. citizens to travel to Cuba for treatment.[398]
A local musical house, Casa de la Trova in Santiago de Cuba
Cuban culture is influenced by its melting pot of cultures, primarily those ofSpain, West Africa, and the indigenousGuanahatabey and Taíno. After the 1959 revolution, the government started a national literacy campaign, offered free education to all and established rigoroussports, ballet, and music programs.[401]
Architecture
The 18th-century entrance of theCastillo del Príncipe in Havana, photo taken in 1997
Cuban architecture reflects a range of historical influences, with its foundations rooted primarily in the Spanish colonial period. Early settlements, or villas, were typically organized around a central church, surrounded by residential structures. These homes often featured interior courtyards and iron grilles, a characteristic element of colonial domestic architecture. SpanishBaroque architecture played a significant role during this era, exemplified by religious buildings such as theBasílica de San Francisco in Havana. In response to the threat of piracy, large fortifications were also constructed, contributing to the island’s defensive infrastructure.
Several historic urban centers developed during the colonial period, many of which have been recognized for their architectural and cultural value. Notable examples include Havana,Camagüey,Cienfuegos andTrinidad, all of which are inscribed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. These cities display a variety of architectural styles, ranging from Baroque andNeoclassical toeclectic influences. Additional towns such asSantiago de Cuba,Matanzas orRemedios also preserve significant colonial-era architecture.
During the Republican period (1902–1959), Cuban architecture saw the construction of prominent public and commercial buildings. Notable examples includeEl Capitolio, inspired by theUnited States Capitol, as well as modern high-rise structures such as theFOCSA Building and theHabana Hilton (later renamed Habana Libre). ArchitectAntonio Quintana Simonetti emerged as a leading figure during the mid-20th century, contributing to the development of modern Cuban architecture.
Following revolution, architectural styles were heavily influenced by Soviet urban planning, emphasizing functionality, uniformity, and efficiency. Residential neighborhoods constructed during this period reflected the characteristics of socialist realism seen in cities likeMoscow andMinsk. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, architecture became more varied. The 1990s and early 21st century saw a rise in the construction of luxury hotels, incorporating modern materials such as glass and steel, and reflecting global architectural trends similar to those found in cities likeMexico City,Caracas, andNew York.
Literature
Cuban literature began to find its voice in the early 19th century. Dominant themes of independence and freedom were exemplified by José Martí, who led the Modernist movement in Cuban literature. Writers such asNicolás Guillén and José Z. Tallet focused on literature as social protest. The poetry and novels ofDulce María Loynaz andJosé Lezama Lima have been influential. RomanticistMiguel Barnet, who wroteEveryone Dreamed of Cuba, reflects a more melancholy Cuba.[402]
Cuban music is rich and is the most commonly known expression of Cuban culture. The central form of this music isson, which has been the basis of many other musical styles like "Danzón de nuevo ritmo",mambo,cha-cha-chá andsalsa music. Rumba ("de cajón o de solar") music originated in the early Afro-Cuban culture, mixed with Spanish elements of style.[404] Thetres was invented in Cuba from Spanish cordophone instruments models (the instrument is actually a fusion of elements from the Spanish guitar and lute). Other traditional Cuban instruments are of African origin, Taíno origin, or both, such as themaracas,güiro,marímbula and various wooden drums including themayohuacán.
Popular Cuban music of all styles has been enjoyed and praised widely across the world. Cuban classical music, which includes music with strong African and European influences, and features symphonic works as well as music for soloists, has received international acclaim thanks to composers likeErnesto Lecuona. Havana was the heart of therap scene in Cuba when it began in the 1990s.
The culture encompasses a wide range of dance forms.[405] Danzón was the official musical genre and dance of Cuba.[406] Mambo music and dance developed originally in Cuba, with further significant developments by Cuban musicians in Mexico and the US. Thecha-cha-cha is another dance of Cuban origin,[407] while the Cubanbolero originated in Santiago de Cuba in the 19th century.[408]Concert dance is supported by the government and includes internationally renowned companies such as theBallet Nacional de Cuba.[409]Salsa dancing originated in Cuba, andCuban salsa is danced around the world.
ETECSA opened 118 cybercafes across the country in 2013.[410] The government of Cuba provides an online encyclopedia website calledEcuRed that operates in a "wiki" format.[411] Internet access is controlled, and e-mail is closely monitored.[412]
Since 2018, access to Internet by mobile data is available. In 2019, 7.1 million Cubans could access the Internet.[413] The prices of connections, since[clarification needed] WiFi zones, or mobile data, or from houses through "Nauta Hogar" service have been decreasing, especially since the economic reform of January 2021, when all the salaries increased by at least 5 times, and the prices of Internet remain in the same point.[414][415] In 2024, it was reported that 8.19 million Cuban people have Internet access.[416] There were 6.68 million mobile connections in Cuba in January 2021.[416]
Cuisine
A traditional meal ofropa vieja (shredded flank steak in a tomato sauce base), black beans, yellow rice, plantains and fried yuca with beer
Cuban cuisine is a fusion ofSpanish andCaribbean cuisines. Cuban recipes share spices and techniques with Spanish cooking, with some Caribbean influence in spice and flavor. Food rationing, which has been the norm for the last four decades, restricts the common availability of these dishes.[417] The traditional meal is not served in courses; all food items are served at the same time.
The typical meal could consist of plantains, black beans and rice,ropa vieja (shredded beef),Cuban bread, pork with onions, and tropical fruits. Black beans and rice, referred to asmoros y cristianos (ormoros for short), and plantains are staples. Many of the meat dishes are cooked slowly with light sauces. Garlic, cumin, oregano, and bay leaves are the dominant spices.[citation needed]
^After the French captured Havana in 1555, the governor's son, Francisco de Angulo, went to theViceroyalty of New Spain.[51]
^According to one military historian, "The thirty-eight individuals who responded to the call for independence on 9 October 1868 had almost no military experience. They, and other Cubans, ignorant of the martial skills, were soon joined by a small band of political refugees from Santo Domingo. A number of these individuals had fought for Spain in Santo Domingo following its re-annexation (1861–65). When Spain quit Santo Domingo for the second time, some Dominican colonial officers immigrated to Cuba. Most were unable to find service in the Spanish army in Cuba. Some of these former soldiers joined the new Revolutionary army and provided its initial training and leadership."[62] Mercenaries from Canada, Colombia, France, Mexico, and the United States joined the Cuban Revolutionary Army. Chinese nationals, brought to Cuba as indentured servants, also fought for the cause.[62] By 1876, the Cuban Revolutionary movement was facing internal strife, largely driven by racial tensions. General Máximo Gómez surrendered his command after officers refused to follow his orders because he was Dominican. At the same time, the campaign against Antonio Maceo, amulatto leader, grew stronger as white factions sought to undermine his leadership because of his race. These racial divisions contributed to a decline in morale within the Revolutionary Army.[63]
^Geloso, Vincent; Pavlik, Jamie Bologna (April 2021). "The Cuban revolution and infant mortality: A synthetic control approach".Explorations in Economic History.80 101376.doi:10.1016/j.eeh.2020.101376.
^Mascarenhas Barreto, Augusto (1988).O Português. Cristóvão Colombo Agente Secreto do Rei Dom João II (in Portuguese). Lisboa: Referendo.ISBN0-333-56315-8.
^Szászdi, Adám; Szászdi, István (2007). "Portugal y Palos en la vida de Colón: algunas observaciones". In García, Luis Navarro (ed.).Orbis Incognitvs. Avisos y Legajos del Nuevo Mundo(PDF) (in Spanish). Universidad de Huelva. pp. 19–25.ISBN9788496826243. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 27 July 2014 – via Americanistas.es.
^abcdSandler, Stanley, ed. (2002)."Part 25".Ground Warfare: An International Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 549.ISBN978-1-57607-344-5.Archived from the original on 8 January 2024. Retrieved6 September 2009.
^Carlos Lauria; Monica Campbell; María Salazar (18 March 2008)."Cuba's Long Black Spring". The Committee to Protect Journalists.Archived from the original on 30 August 2011. Retrieved3 April 2009.
^CNN: "Cuba eases travel restriction for citizens" by Ben BrumfieldArchived 4 March 2016 at theWayback Machine 16 October 2012 |Until now, Cubans had to pay $150 for an exit visa. A resident in the country that the Cuban wanted to visit would also have to write a letter of invitation. Fees associated with the letter ran as high as $200. That's a steep price in a country where the average official monthly income is about $20.
^"Raul Castro leaving Cuban presidency, not power".Associated Press News. 18 April 2018.Archived from the original on 4 June 2021. Retrieved4 October 2023.The 86-year-old former guerrilla remains head of Cuba's Communist Party, a position that leaves him with broad authority – including much oversight of the man who is replacing him as president.
^Julio Antonio Fernández Estrada (17 April 2018)."What is the Cuban's system of government?". On Cuba News.The Cuban State is also recognized as unitary, which is evident given that Cuba does not function as a federation
^J C Guanche Zaldívar; E C Díaz Galán; H Bertot Triana."Cuba: Legal Response to Covid-19". Oxford Constitutional Law.Cuba is a unitary republic with a sui generis system of government
^"Cuba". Urban and Cities Platform of Latin America and the Caribbean.Cuba is a unitary republic with a centrally planned economy that is divided into provinces and municipalities.
^Cederlöf, Gustav (2023).The Low-Carbon Contradiction: Energy Transition, Geopolitics, and the Infrastructural State in Cuba. Critical environments: nature, science, and politics. Oakland, California:University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-39313-4.
^"Raul Castro to lead Cuba's Communist Party until 2021". France 24. 19 April 2018.Archived from the original on 18 July 2018. Retrieved21 January 2021.'I confirm to this assembly that Raul Castro, as first secretary of the Communist Party, will lead the decisions about the future of the country,' Diaz-Canel said.
^Galvis, Ángela Fonseca; Superti, Chiara (3 October 2019). "Who wins the most when everybody wins? Predicting candidate performance in an authoritarian election".Democratization.26 (7):1278–1298.doi:10.1080/13510347.2019.1629420.
^Domínguez, Jorge I.; Galvis, Ángela Fonseca; Superti, Chiara (2017). "Authoritarian Regimes and Their Permitted Oppositions: Election Day Outcomes in Cuba".Latin American Politics and Society.59 (2):27–52.doi:10.1111/laps.12017.
^Braithwaite, Alex; Braithwaite, Jessica Maves (2020). "Restricting Opposition in Elections and Terrorist Violence".Terrorism and Political Violence.32 (7):1550–1572.doi:10.1080/09546553.2018.1495627.
^Domínguez, Jorge I.; Galvis, Ángela Fonseca; Superti, Chiara (2017). "Authoritarian Regimes and Their Permitted Oppositions: Election Day Outcomes in Cuba".Latin American Politics and Society.59 (2):27–52.doi:10.1111/laps.12017.
^Leogrande, William M. (2012).The Cuban communist party and electoral politics: Adaptation, succession, and transition. Cuba Transition Project, Institute for Cuban and Cuban-American Studies, University of Miami.ISBN978-0-9704916-2-6.
^Domínguez 1989, p. 6: "Cuba is a small country, but it has the foreign policy of a big power."
^Feinsilver 1989, p. 2: "Cuba has projected disproportionately greater power and influence through military might ... through economic largesse ... as a mediator in regional conflicts, and as a forceful and persuasive advocate of Third World interests in international forums. Cuba's scientific achievements, while limited, are also being shared with other Third World countries, thereby furthering Cuban influence and prestige abroad."
^Gleijeses 1996, pp. 159, 161: "Cuba's relationship with Algeria in 1961–5 ... clashes with the image of Cuban foreign policy—cynical ploys of a [Soviet] client state—that prevails not only in the United States but also in many European capitals. ... The aid Cuba gave Algeria in 1961–2 had nothing to do with the East-West conflict. Its roots predate Castro's victory in 1959 and lie in the Cubans' widespread identification with the struggle of the Algerian people."
^Gleijeses 2010, p. 327: "The dispatch of 36,000 Cuban soldiers to Angola between November 1975 and April 1976 stunned the world; ... by 1988, there were 55,000 Cuban soldiers in Angola."
^Gleijeses 2002, p. 392: "After Angola, Cuba's largest military intervention was in Ethiopia, where in 1978 16,000 Cuban troops helped repulse the invading Somali army."
^Gleijeses 1997, p. 50: "On 14–16 October 1960, [Guinean president Ahmed Sékou] Touré went to Havana. It was the first visit of an African chief of state to Cuba. The following year Cuba's foreign aid programme to Third World governments began when fifteen students from Guinea arrived in Havana to attend the university or technical institutes."
^Gleijeses 1997, p. 45: "Joining the rebellion in 1966, and remaining through the war's end in 1974, this was the longest Cuban intervention in Africa before the despatch of troops to Angola in November 1975. It was also the most successful. As the Guinean paperNõ Pintcha declared, 'The Cubans' solidarity was decisive for our struggle'".
^Gleijeses 2002, p. 227. The Cuban contribution to the independence of Mozambique was not very important.
^Arsenault, Chris (31 December 2012)."Cuban doctors prescribe hope in Venezuela".Al Jazeera.Archived from the original on 21 September 2020. Retrieved24 April 2013. As the article discusses, the oil-for-doctors programme has not been welcomed uncritically in Venezuela. The initial impetus for Cuban doctors' going to Venezuela was a Chavez-government welfare project calledMisión Barrio Adentro (Albornoz 2006).
^"499. Memorandum From the Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs (Mallory) to the Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs (Rubottom)".Foreign Relations of the United States. Washington: Office of the Historian, Foreign Service Institute –United States Department of State. 6 April 1960.Archived from the original on 27 September 2016. Retrieved13 May 2022.If the above are accepted or cannot be successfully countered, it follows that every possible means should be undertaken promptly to weaken the economic life of Cuba. If such a policy is adopted, it should be the result of a positive decision which would call forth a line of action which, while as adroit and inconspicuous as possible, makes the greatest inroads in denying money and supplies to Cuba, to decrease monetary and real wages, to bring about hunger, desperation and overthrow of government.
^Daniel Trotta and Steve Holland (17 December 2014)."U.S., Cuba restore ties after 50 years".Reuters. Havanna and Washington.Archived from the original on 15 January 2016. Retrieved13 January 2015.
^Feinberg, Richard (14 June 2016).Open for Business: Building the New Cuban Economy. Publisher: Brookings Institution Press. pp. 214–215.ISBN9780815727699.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
^"Rank Order Exports".The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 29 June 2006. Archived fromthe original on 19 August 2016. Retrieved30 April 2014.
^abcd"Cuba".The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived fromthe original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved6 April 2009.
^Alliance, Community (13 September 2011)."Homeless in Cuba? Not Likely".Community Alliance.Archived from the original on 7 January 2021. Retrieved2 January 2021.
^"Cuba rations chicken, eggs and rice as economic crisis worsens".National Post. 10 May 2019. Retrieved12 May 2019.Cuba imports roughly two-thirds of its food at an annual cost of more than $2.7 billion and brief shortages of individual products have been common for years. In recent months, a growing number of products have started to go missing for days or weeks at a time, and long lines have sprung up within minutes of the appearance of scarce products like chicken or flour.
^ab"Nickel"(PDF). United States Geological Survey.Archived(PDF) from the original on 9 May 2013. Retrieved9 November 2013.
^Ivette E. Torres (1997)."The Mineral Industry of Cuba"(PDF). United States Geological Survey.Archived(PDF) from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved6 September 2009.
^Facio, Elisa; Maura Toro-Morn, and Anne R. Roschelle (Spring 2004)."Tourism in Cuba During the Special Period"(PDF).Transnational Law & Contemporary Problems.14. University of Iowa College of Law: 119. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 22 August 2006.
^"Background Note: Cuba". U.S. Department of State. December 2005.Archived from the original on 22 January 2017. Retrieved9 July 2006.
^Apollo, Michal; Rettinger, Renata (14 September 2019). "Mountaineering in Cuba: improvement of true accessibility as an opportunity for regional development of communities outside the tourism enclaves".Current Issues in Tourism.22 (15):1797–1804.doi:10.1080/13683500.2018.1446920.
^Powell, John (2005)."Cuban immigration".Encyclopedia of North American Immigration. Facts on File. pp. 68–71.ISBN9781438110127. Retrieved30 November 2016.
^Smith 1996, p. 105: "The expansion of religious liberty began more than a decade ago, for example, and Cuban citizens, by and large, are free to practice their faiths without fear of persecution."
^Cuba: A Different America, By Wilber A. Chaffee, Gary Prevost, Rowland and Littlefield, 1992, p. 106
^Feinsilver 1989, pp. 4–5: "Its success has been acclaimed by Dr. Halfdan Mahler, the Director-General of the World Health Organization (WHO), and Dr. Carlysle Guerra de Macedo, Director-General of the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), as well as by medical professionals from the United States and other capitalist countries who have observed the Cuban health system in action. Despite U.S. hostility toward Cuba, a U.S. government document stated in 1982 that the 'Cuban Revolution has managed social achievements, especially in education and health care, that are highly respected in the Third World ..., [including] a national health care program that is superior in the Third World and rivals that of numerous developed countries.'"
^Lundy, Karen Saucier.Community Health Nursing: Caring for the Public's Health. Jones and Bartlett: 2005, p. 377.
^Moore, Robin (1997).Nationalizing Blackness: Afrocubanismo and Artistic Revolution in Havana, 1920–1940. University of Pittsburgh Press.ISBN978-0-8229-5645-7.
^Cristobal Diaz offers 1885: "el bolero, creado aproximadamente para 1885". Diaz Ayala, Cristobal 1999.Cuando sali de la Habana 1898-1997: cien años de música cubana por el mundo. 3rd ed, Cubanacán, San Juan P.R. p24-25
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