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The art of theCrusades, produced in theLevant underLatin rulership, spanned two artistic periods inEurope, theRomanesque and theGothic, but in theCrusader states the Gothic style barely appeared. The military crusaders themselves were mostly interested in artistic and development matters, or sophisticated in their taste, and much of their art was destroyed in the loss of their kingdoms so that only a few pieces survive today. Probably their most notable and influential artistic achievement was theCrusader castles, many of which achieve a stark, massive beauty. They developed theByzantine methods of city-fortification for stand-alonecastles far larger than any constructed before, either locally or in Europe.
The crusaders encountered a long and rich artistic tradition in the lands they conquered at the end of the 11th century and the beginning of the 12th.Byzantine andIslamic art (that of both theArabs and theTurks) were the dominant styles in theCrusader states, although there were also the styles of the indigenousSyrians andArmenians. These indigenous styles were incorporated into styles brought by the crusaders from Europe, which were themselves highly varied, stemming fromFrance,Italy,Germany,England, and elsewhere. On the whole theEastern Christian styles were more significant influences thanIslamic art; the artists working in the Crusader lands are assumed to have had the same variety of backgrounds. Many art historians attempt to guess the backgrounds, in terms of ethnicity, place of birth and training, of the artists involved with particular works, an effort treated with caution byKurt Weitzmann,Doula Mouriki, andJaroslav Folda, author of the most recent detailed survey.[1]
Crusader art in theLevant, like the history of the Crusader kingdoms in general, falls clearly into two, or three, periods. The first begins with theFirst Crusade which culminated in 1099 with the bloodytaking of Jerusalem and the establishment of theKingdom of Jerusalem and other states to the north. The following decades were turbulent but artistically productive, until the catastrophe of 1187 saw the Crusader defeat at theBattle of Hattin and thefall of Jerusalem toSaladin. In the second period the Kingdom of Jerusalem was now hugely reduced in size to control only a few coastal towns and the areas around them, which were gradually whittled away by the Muslims until the finalSiege of Acre (1291) ended Crusader presence in theLevant. However the kingdom still controlledCyprus, taken from theByzantine Empire, and theHouse of Lusignan continued to rule there, and later theArmenian Kingdom of Cilicia, until respectively 1489 and the late 14th century, representing the third period of Crusader art, not counted as such by all sources; in Cyprus the Gothic style is often found.[2]
There is a further sense of "Crusader art" to cover the art produced in theLatin Empire that usurped much of theByzantine Empire, ruled by the Crusaders between theSack of Constantinople in 1204 by theFourth Crusade and 1261.Saint Catherine's Monastery inSinai was also a centre during this time, and perhaps later. This art had a larger impact in Europe, to which many artists probably returned after the collapse of the regime, influencingItalo-Byzantine painting there. The crusades were also important as a subject in Western art, mainly in illuminated luxury versions of the many histories that were popular reading with Western elites.
An example of the mixture of different styles is theMelisende Psalter, anilluminated manuscript produced in the mid-12th century, perhaps for QueenMelisende of Jerusalem. It reflects her European and Armenian heritage, and is also influenced by Byzantine and Islamic techniques. TheSaint Catherine's Monastery inEgypt was an important centre where a school of manuscript andicon painting that blended European and local influences emerged. Fortunately it has also been a very secure home for its collection of icons (but not manuscripts in Latin, all of which were later destroyed, apparently under Russian influence), so a good number have survived there. Artists who can be identified on stylistic grounds as originating inFrance andItaly (Venice andApulia) worked there, producing work mixing Byzantine and Western conventions, but usually with lettering in Greek. This was possible because by a quirk of Orthodox history the church there was in communion with both theCatholic and the other Orthodox churches, and so the normal sectarian divides that separated the crusaders from even the local Christians did not operate.
There was also a scriptorium in Acre which produced many well known manuscripts such asmissals and theArsenal Bible,[3] especially noted for commissions by KingLouis IX of France.[4] The frontispiece toProverbs 1 in the Arsenal Bible shows Solomon wearing the traditional insignia and clothing of a Byzantine emperor, in a mixture of the Gothic and Franco-Byzantine Crusader styles, and also shows French architecture.[4] Most of the significant surviving illuminated manuscripts were produced in the 13th century, about half in the last forty years of the Latin kingdom; to what extent this is an accident of survival is unclear.[4]
An example of the mixture of styles is theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, the renovation and rebuilding of which was completed in 1149; however only fragments of the large programme ofmosaics now survive. This was until the loss of Jerusalem in 1187 the institution with the main Crusaderscriptorium, from which six manuscripts survive, made in a mixture of royal and church commissions.[5] Most of the significant surviving illuminated manuscripts were produced in the 13th century, about half in the last forty years of the Latin kingdom; to what extent this is an accident of survival is unclear.[6] Some icons in wall painting and mosaic survive from theChurch of the Nativity inBethlehem.[5] TheHospitaller church atAbu Ghosh, apparently then regarded as the biblicalEmmaus, was abandoned in 1187 but has good remains offrescos. Some wall paintings and mosaic sections survive from theChurch of the Nativity inBethlehem,[5] and there are frescoes atLagoudhera on Cyprus.[3]
Figurativemonumental sculpture inrelief was, some earlier Armenian work apart, not part of local Christian traditions, so theRomanesque sculpture of Europe, especially France, was much the largest influence. Discussion of the varied styles by art historians typically involves only various areas in Europe, mostly in France. Many elements were re-used in later buildings, and have now re-appeared, often badly damaged. Original work has survived at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, whose carvedlintels are now in theRockefeller Museum in the city, and was removed from the destroyed Church of Santa Maria Latina nearby.
Another major pilgrimage basilica, theChurch of the Annunciation inNazareth, was just nearing the completion of a major rebuilding in 1187. Saladin in fact left the Christians in place and does not seem to have damaged the building. However the church was seriously damaged in the next major upheaval in the area, the invasion in 1267 by theMamluk rulerBaybars, and the sculptures remaining from the church all suffered. In 1908 five extra capitals were excavated, having, it is presumed, been buried in 1187 soon after they were made but before they were put in place, when news of Saladin's approach reached the town. These are in excellent condition, and some of the most famous sculptures of the Crusader period.[7]
The situation is rather different with decorative sculpture, where local influence is much stronger. The beautifully carved and complex decoration on the arches and cornices over the doors into the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is unlike anything in France from this period and reflects local development of Syrian late Roman styles; some parts are probably re-used Roman material. The neighbouring capitals, "based onJustinianic models, are probably the work of local Christian sculptors working for the Latins".[8]
After the rapid collapse of theKingdom of Jerusalem in 1187, which must have destroyed a great part of the artwork the crusaders produced,[9] they were mostly confined to a few cities on theMediterranean coast untilAcre was conquered in 1291. Their artistic output did not cease during the 13th century, and shows further influences from the art of theMamluks andMongols.
In Cyprus, the Lusignan kingdom continued to produce work, including the Gothic cathedrals ofFamagusta (Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque) andNicosia (Haydarpasha Mosque/Saint Catherine andSelimiye Mosque/Saint Sophia Cathedral), all later used asmosques and relatively well-preserved (minus their figurative sculpture).
There was also crusade-related art produced back in Europe, from the many illuminated crusade chronicles such as theOld French translation ofWilliam of Tyre, to architecture such as the round churches built by theKnights Templar in the style of the Holy Sepulchre, and theSainte-Chapelle in Paris built to accommodate relics brought back from the East. Luxurious printed textiles began to be produced in Europe at around the end of the Crusades, and may well have been another influence. In general, it is often not possible to say with certainty whether influences or new types of objects arriving in Europe at this period did so via Islamic Spain, the Byzantine world, or the Crusader states. Historians tend to discount the importance of the Crusader States in this regard, despite the very well developed Italian trading networks there. Europeancastle-building was certainly decisively influenced by the crusaders.
