| Crusade of Varna | |||||||
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| Part of theHungarian–Ottoman Wars and theCrusades | |||||||
 KingWładysław III of Poland in theBattle of Varna, byJan Matejko | |||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||
| Ottoman Empire | |||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
| Władysław III (MIA)[2][3] John Hunyadi Đurađ Branković Mircea II Fruzhin Julian Cesarini † | Murad II | ||||||
TheCrusade of Varna was an unsuccessful military campaign mounted by several European leaders to check the expansion of theOttoman Empire intoCentral Europe, specifically theBalkans between 1443 and 1444. It was called byPope Eugene IV on 1 January 1443 and led by KingWładysław III of Poland,John Hunyadi,Voivode of Transylvania, and DukePhilip the Good ofBurgundy.
The Crusade of Varna culminated in a decisive Ottoman victory over thecrusader alliance at theBattle of Varna on 10 November 1444, during which Władysław disappeared and the expedition's papal legateJulian Cesarini was killed.
In 1428, while theOttoman Empire was fighting a war with theRepublic of Venice and theKingdom of Hungary they achieved a temporary peace by establishing theSerbian Despotate as abuffer state. After the war ended in 1430,[4][5] the Ottomans returned to their earlier objective of controlling all lands south of theDanube. In 1432,SultanMurad II began raiding intoTransylvania. After KingSigismund died in 1437, the attacks intensified, with the Ottomans occupyingBorač in 1438 andZvornik andSrebrenica in 1439. At the end of 1439,Smederevo capitulated and Murad succeeded in making Serbia an Ottoman province.Đurađ Branković,Despot of Serbia, fled to his estates in Hungary. In 1440, Murad besieged Hungary's main border fortress,Belgrade. After failing to take the fortress, he was forced to return toAnatolia to stop attacks by theKaramanids.[6][7]
Meanwhile, Sigismund's successorAlbert had died in October 1439, shortly after signing a law to "restore the ancient laws and customs of the realm". The law restricted theroyal authority by requiring the participation oflanded nobility in political decisions. Four months after Albert's death, his only sonLadislaus the Posthumous was born while Hungary was in the midst of a civil war over the next monarch. On 17 July 1440,Władysław, king ofPoland, was crowned despite continuing disputes.[8]John Hunyadi aided Władysław's cause by pacifying the eastern counties, gaining him the position ofNádor of Transylvania and the corresponding responsibility of protecting Hungary's southern border. By the end of 1442, Władysław had secured his status in Hungary, and rejected an Ottoman proposal of peace in exchange for Belgrade.[7]
TheCatholic Church had long been advocating for a crusade against the Ottomans, and with the end of both the Hungarian civil war and a nearly simultaneous one inByzantium, they were able to begin negotiations and planning realistically. The impetus required to turn the plans into action was provided by Hunyadi between 1441–1442. In 1441, he defeated a raid led byIshak Pasha of Smederevo.[6] He nearly annihilated Mezid Bey's army in Transylvania on 22 March 1442, and in September he defeated the revenge attack ofŞihabeddin Pasha, governor-general ofRumelia.[7] Branković, hoping to liberate Serbia, also lent his support afterNovo Brdo, the last major Serbian city, fell to the Ottomans in 1441.
On 1 January 1443,Pope Eugene IV published acrusading bull. In early May, it was reported "that the Turks were in a bad state and that it would be easy to expel them from Europe". War was proclaimed against Sultan Murad II at the diet ofBuda onPalm Sunday 1443, and with an army of 40,000 men, mostly Magyars, the young monarch, with Hunyadi commanding under him, crossed theDanube and tookNish andSofia.[8]
The crusaders, led by Władysław, Hunyadi, and Branković, attacked in mid-October. They correctly expected that Murad would not be able quickly to mobilize his army, which consisted mainly offief-holding cavalrymen (timariots) who needed to collect theharvest to pay taxes. Hunyadi's experience of winter campaigns from 1441–1442 added to the Hungarians' advantage. They also had better armor, often rendering the Ottoman weapons useless. Murad could not rely on the loyalty of his troops from Rumelia, and had difficulties countering Hungarian tactics.[7]
In the Battle of Nish the crusaders were victorious and forcedKasim Pasha of Rumelia and his co-commanderTurahan Bey to flee toSofia,Bulgaria to warn Murad of the invasion. However, the two burned all the villages in their path in an attempt to wear down the crusaders with ascorched earth tactic. When they arrived in Sofia, they advised the Sultan to burn the city and retreat to the mountain passes beyond, where the Ottoman's smaller army would not be such a disadvantage.
After theBattle of Nish, Hunyadi and his men took a rest in a camp near the town ofAleksinac. They were informed by scouts that the Ottomans were trying to attack the king's camp by outflanking Hunyadi. This forced Hunyadi to stand against the Ottomans, who outnumbered his men, which made him doubt his chance of victory. However, he boosted his men’s morale and beat the enemy, killing 2,000 and capturing 4,000 Ottomans in the process.[9]
Shortly after, bitter cold set in, and the next encounter, fought atZlatitsa Pass on 12 December 1443, was fought in the snow. Until the Battle of Zlatitsa the crusaders did not meet a major Ottoman army, but only town garrisons along their route towardAdrianople.[10] Finally, at Zlatitsa they met strong and well positioned defence forces of the Ottoman army.[10] The crusaders were defeated.
As they marched home, however, they ambushed and defeated a pursuing force in theBattle of Kunovica, whereMahmud Bey, son-in-law of the Sultan and brother of theGrand VizierÇandarlı Halil Pasha, was taken prisoner.[7] Four days after this battle the Christian coalition reachedProkuplje. Branković proposed to Władysław and Hunyadi that they stay in Serbian fortified towns during the winter and continue their campaign against the Ottomans in Spring 1444. They rejected his proposal, and retreated.[11] By the end of January 1444 forces of Władysław and Hunyadi reachedBelgrade,[citation needed] and in February they arrived atBuda where they were greeted as heroes.[12]
While the battle at Zlatitsa Pass had been a defeat, the ambush returned to the crusaders the impression of an overall Christian victory, and they returned triumphant. The King and Church were both anxious to maintain this impression, and gave instructions to spread word of the victories, but contradict anyone who mentioned the loss.[7]
Murad, meanwhile, returned angry and dejected by the unreliability of his forces, and imprisoned Turahan after blaming him for the army's setbacks and Mahmud Bey's capture.[7]
Murad is believed to have had the greatest wish for peace. Among other things, his vizier's sister begged him to obtain her husband Mahmud's release, and his wifeMara, daughter of Đurađ Branković, added additional pressure. On 6 March 1444 Mara sent an envoy to Branković; their discussion started the peace negotiations with the Ottoman Empire.[7]
On 24 April 1444, Władysław sent a letter to Murad, stating that his ambassador, Stojka Gisdanić, was travelling toEdirne with full powers to negotiate on his behalf. He asked that, once an agreement was reached, Murad send his own ambassadors with the treaty and his sworn oath to Hungary, at which point Władysław could also swear.[7]
That same day, Władysław held aDiet atBuda, where he swore beforeCardinalJulian Cesarini to lead a new expedition against the Ottomans in the summer. The strongest remaining supporter of Ladislaus the Posthumous' claim for the throne also agreed to a truce, thus removing the danger of another civil war.[7]
Between June and August 1444, negotiations for a treaty were carried out, first inEdirne, and then inSzeged. The crusaders were not entirely interested in peace, however, especially with Cesarini pushing for the crusade's continuation. The Cardinal eventually found a solution that would allow for both the continuation of fighting and the ratification of the treaty, and on 15 August 1444 thePeace of Szeged was sworn into effect.[7]
Shortly after all the short-term requirements of the treaty were fulfilled, the Hungarians and their allies resumed the crusade. King Władysław gathered an army composed mostly of Hungarian regular troops, and forces from Poland, Transylvania,Croatia,Bosnia, heavy cavalry units from western Europe, and mercenaries from eastern Europe.[13] The combined armies numbered 16,000, and were joined by 4,000Wallachians in the area of Nicopolis.[14] Murad, who had retired shortly after the treaty was completed, was called back to lead the Ottoman army. On 10 November 1444, the two armies clashed at theBattle of Varna (near theBlack Sea fortress ofVarna, Bulgaria). The Ottomans won a decisive victory despite heavy losses, while the crusaders lost King Władysław and over 15,000 men.[8][15][page needed][16][page needed] The King's ultimate fate is unknown; according to one Turkish account he was beheaded by mercenary Kodja Hazar, however another Turkish source says the King was taken prisoner and executed later.[17] The fallen monarch's body was never found nor presented by Ottomans, and his supposed death at the hands of Hazar was not witnessed by any of his Polish or Hungarian men, leaving uncertainty about his ultimate fate and unconfirmed rumors about his survival; Władysław was eventually assumed to be killed in the battle, as he did not return to any of his kingdoms.[18][19]
Many of the Crusaders were crippled byfrostbite, many more died in smaller follow-up battles, and many Europeans were captured. Hungary fell back into civil war until Hunyadi was electedRegent for the infantLadislaus in June 1446. Branković retained control over Serbia.
The Ottoman victory in Varna, followed by their victory in theSecond Battle of Kosovo in 1448, deterred the European states from sending substantial military assistance to theByzantines during the Ottomanconquest of Constantinople in 1453. AlthoughPius II officially declared a three-year crusade at theCouncil of Mantua to recapture Constantinople from the Ottomans, the leaders who promised 80,000 soldiers to it reneged on their commitment.[20] The Ottoman Empire was free, for several decades, from any further serious attempts to push it out of Europe.[7]
Only theEuropean victory at Belgrade would stop the Ottomans from conquering large parts of Europe. Hungary would be safe for another 70 years after this victory until the Hungarian army was crushed by the Ottomans at theBattle of Mohács in 1526, which would lead to the end of Hungary as an independent united kingdom for almost 400 years.[21]
The end of the Crusade of Varna serves as the starting point for thegrand strategy video gameEuropa Universalis IV byParadox Development Studio, one day after theBattle of Varna, on 11 November 1444.
see para...Wladislaus III. (1424–1444), king of Poland and Hungary, the eldest son of Wladislaus II......
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