Aprocession is an organized body of people walking in a formal or ceremonial manner.[1]
Processions have in all peoples and at all times been a natural form of public celebration, as forming an orderly and impressive ceremony. Religious and triumphal processions are abundantly illustrated by ancient monuments, e.g. the religious processions of Egypt, those illustrated by the rock-carvings ofBoghaz-Keui, the many representations of processions in Greek art, culminating in the great Panathenaic procession of theParthenon Frieze, and Roman triumphal reliefs, such as those of thearch of Titus.[1]
Processions played a prominent part in the great festivals of Greece, where they were always religious in character. The games were either opened or accompanied by more or less elaborate processions and sacrifices, while processions from the earliest times formed part of the worship of the old nature gods, as those connected with thecult of Dionysus and thePhallic processions, and later formed an essential part of the celebration of the great religious festivals (e.g. the processions of theThesmophoria, and that of theGreat Dionysia), and of the mysteries (e.g. the great procession from Athens to Eleusis, in connection with theEleusinia).[1]
The most prominent of the Roman processions was that of theTriumph, which had its origin in the return of a victorious army headed by their general, who accompanied by the army, captives, spoils, the chief magistrate, priests bearing the images of the gods, amidst strewing of flowers, burning of incense and the like (Ovid,Trist. iv. 2, 3 and 6), proceeded in great pomp from the Campus to the Capitol to offer sacrifice.
Connected with the triumph was thepompa circensis, or solemn procession that preceded the games in the circus. It first came into use at theLudi Romani, when the games were preceded by a great procession from the Capitol to the Circus. Thepraetor orconsul who appeared in the ponipa circensis wore the robes of a triumphing general (see Mommsen, Staatsrec/zt I. 397 for the connection of the triumph with theludi). Thus, when it became customary for the consul to celebrate games at the opening of the consular year, he came, under the empire, to appear in triumphal robes in the processus consularis, or procession of the consul to the Capitol to sacrifice to Jupiter.[1]
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After the ascendency of Christianity in theRoman Empire, the consular processions inConstantinople retained their religious character, now proceeding toHagia Sophia, where prayers and offerings were made; but in Rome, where Christianity was not so widely spread among the upper classes, at first the tendency was to convert the procession into a purely civil function, omitting the pagan rites and prayers, without substituting Christian ones.[2]
Only after Theodosius did the processions become a religious event, replete with icons, crosses, and banners. There were other local processions connected with the primitive worship of the country people, which remained unchanged, but they were eventually overshadowed by the popular piety of theChurch. Such were those of theAmbarvalia,Robigalia, which were essentially rustic festivals,lustrations of the fields, consisting in a procession round the spot to be purified, leading the sacrificial victims with prayers, hymns, and ceremonies to protect the young crops from evil influence.[3]
Tertullian (2nd century) usesprocessio andprocedere in the sense of to go out, appear in public, and, as applied to a church function,processio was first used in the same way ascollecta, i.e. for the assembly of the people in a church.[4] In this sense it appears to be used byPope Leo I,[5] while in the version byDionysius Exiguus of the 17th canon of theCouncil of Laodicea (about 363–364)Ancient Greek:σονάξεσι, is translated byprocessionibus.[1][6]
For the processions that formed part of the ritual of theEucharist, those of the introit, the gospel and the oblation, the earliest records date from the 6th century and even later,[7] but they evidently were established at a much earlier date. As to public processions, these seem to have come into rapid vogue after the recognition of Christianity as the religion of the empire. Those atJerusalem would seem to have been long established when described by the author of thePeregrinatio Sylviae towards the end of the 4th century.[1]
Very early were the processions accompanied by hymns and prayers, known aslitaniae,rogationes orsupplicationes. It is to such a procession that reference appears to be made in a letter ofSt Basil,[8] which would thus be the first recorded mention of a public Christian procession. The first mention for the Western Church occurs inSt Ambrose.[9] In both these cases the litanies are stated to have been long in use. There is also mention of a procession accompanied by hymns, organized at Constantinople bySt John Chrysostom (c. 390–400) in opposition to a procession ofArians, inSozomen.[10]
Some liturgists maintain that theearly Church in its processions followedOld Testament precedents, quoting such cases as the procession of theArk of the Covenant round the walls of Jericho,[11] the procession of David with the Ark,[12] the processions of thanksgiving on the return from captivity, &c. The liturgy of the early Church as Duchesne shows[13] was influenced by that of the Jewish synagogue, but the theory that the Church's processions were directly related to the Old Testament ritual is of later origin.[1]
In times of calamity litanies were held, in which the people walked in robes of penitence, fasting, barefooted, and, in later times, frequently dressed in black(litaniae nigrae). The cross was carried at the head of the procession and often the gospel and the relics of the saint were carried.Gregory of Tours gives numerous instances of such litanies in time of calamity; thus he describes[14] a procession of the clergy and people round the city, in which relics ofSt Remigius were carried and litanies chanted in order to avert the plague. So, too,Gregory the Great[15] writes to the Sicilian bishops to hold processions to prevent a threatened invasion of Sicily. A famous instance of these penitential litanies is thelitania septiformis ordered by Gregory the Great in the year 590, when Rome had been inundated and pestilence had followed.[1] In this litany seven processions, of clergy, laymen, monks, nuns, matrons, the poor, and children respectively, starting from seven different churches, proceeded to hear mass atSt. Maria Maggiore.[16] This litany has often been confused with thelitania major, introduced at Rome in 598 (vide supra), but is quite distinct from it.
Funeral processions, accompanied with singing and the carrying of lighted tapers, were very early customary (seeceremonial use of lights), and akin to these, also very early, were the processions connected with the translation of therelics of martyrs from their original burying place to the church where they were to be enshrined.[17] From the time of theemperor Constantine I these processions were of great magnificence.[1]
Festivals involving processions were adopted by theCatholic Church from the pre-Christian Roman festive calendar. Thelitaniae majores et minores, which are stated byHermann Usener[18] to have been first instituted byPope Liberius (352-366). It is generally acknowledged that they are the equivalent of the Catholic Church of the Roman lustrations of the crops in spring, theAmbarvalia, &c. Thelitania major, or great procession on St Mark's day (April 25) is shown to coincide both in date and ritual with the RomanRobigalia, which took place ad. vii. Kal. Mai., and consisted in a procession leaving Rome by theFlaminian gate, and proceeding by way of theMilvian bridge to a sanctuary at the 5th milestone of theVia Claudia, where the flamen quirinalis sacrificed a dog and a sheep to avert blight (robigo) from the crops.[19] The litania major followed the same route as far as the Milvian bridge, when it turned off and returned to St Peter's, where mass was celebrated. This was already established as an annual festival by 598, as is shown by a document ofGregory the Great[20] that inculcates the duty of celebrating litaniam, quae major ab omnibus appellatur. Thelitaniae minores orrogations, held on the three days precedingAscension Day, were first introduced into Gaul by BishopMamertus of Vienne (c. 470), and made binding for all Gaul by theFirst Council of Orléans (511). The litaniae minores were also adopted for these three days in Rome byPope Leo III (c. 800).[1]
A description of the institution and character of the Ascensiontide rogations is given bySidonius Apollinaris.[21] The solemnity of these, he says, was first established by Mamertus. Hitherto they had been erratic, lukewarm, and poorly attended(vagae, tepentes, infrequentesque). Those he instituted were characterized by fasting, prayers, psalms, and tears. In the Ambrosian rite the rogations take place afterAscension, and in the Spanish on the Thursday to Saturday afterWhitsuntide, and in November (Synod of Girona, 517).[1]
The element of ritual was prominent in early modernCatholicism, even afterLuther's critique of the "empty rituals" in latemedieval Christianity. There were processions to commemorate almost all the holiday. Though 18th-century Church reformers made strides to simplify the liturgical year and its complex web of holidays, festivals and processions, these practices remained as essential to Catholic ritual traditions in 1750 as they had been in the 15th century.[22] After 1650 the number of processions was on the rise as processions became as essential to the observance of feast days asCatholic Mass. Some processions were tied to agricultural lifestyles, while others werepilgrimages to shrines and holy places, or to develop ties with other parishes.[23]
During theReformation, theliturgical year was central to the liturgical practices of Catholicism. Beginning with the Christmas season (fromAdvent toEpiphany) and followed by the feasts ofEaster,Passiontide andPentecost,Trinity Sunday and theFeast of Corpus Christi.[24] In the early 18th century there were eleven processions of note at the village of Ettenkirch (nearLake Constance). These processions could travel to destinations as far as two hours away. Monthly processions took place around the Church, and onAll Souls' Day and Palm Sunday.[23] Corpus Christi was one of the most elaborate.
Ascension Day was another important ceremony that held stronganti-Protestant meaning. InHerbolzheim the procession involved villagers "flying flags, crosses held high, singing and loudly recited prayers" as they passed near neighboring Protestant villages. When theBishop of Strasbourg forbade the Ascension Day procession in 1743, believing the practice would create conflict withProtestants in neighboring towns, theRhine Valley villagers protested.[25]
One of the effects of theTridentine reform was to ensure that the variety of devotions that sprang up in ecclesiastically fragmented parts of Europe were connected with the rituals of the Catholic Church. Not all devotional practices were tolerated. TheJosephine Reforms bannedGood Friday processions with costumed figures andpalmesel processions forPalm Sunday, but some still went on. On Palm Sunday villagers carried green branches re-enacting Christ's entry into Jerusalem, andPalmesel processions still took place with a representation of Christ on a donkey.[26] Theparish of Niederwihl claimed possession of a piece of theTrue Cross and by the 18th century had introduced new processions for the Discovery of the True Cross (May 3) and the Elevation of the True Cross (September 14). Therelic would be carried by the townspeople for processions through their agricultural fields integrating aCounter-Reformation devotional theme with the ancient fertility rites of the townsfolk's rural religion.[27]
The Story of the Stone, written in the 18th century, contains a description of the procession accompanying an Imperial Concubine:
Presently a faint sound of music was heard and the Imperial Concubine's procession at last came in sight.First came several pairs ofeunuchs carrying embroidered banners.Then several more pairs withceremonial pheasant-feather fans.Then eunuchs swinging gold-inlaid censers in which special 'palaceincense' was burning.Next came a great gold-coloured 'seven phoenix'umbrella of state, hanging from its curve-topped shaft life a great drooping bell-flower. In its shadow was borne the Imperial Concubine's travelling wardrobe: her head-dress, robe, sash and shoes. Eunuch gentlemen-in-waiting followed carrying her rosary, her embroidered handkerchief, her spittoon, her fly-whisk, and various other items.Last of all, when this army of attendants had gone by, a great gold-toppedpalanquin with phoenixes embroidered on its yellow curtains slowly advanced on the shoulders of eight eunuch bearers.[28]
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Many elements may be used to make a procession more significant than just "people walking in the same direction":
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Edo-period documenters enjoyed drawing the processions ofpleasure district beauties, such asCourtesan Parading With Attendants bySuzuki Harunobu. Similar parading courtesans feature inCherry Blossom in the Evening on the Nakanomachi in Yoshiwara byUtagawa Hiroshige andTrue Scenery of the Gay Quarter of Minatozakimachi Shinminato byUtagawa Sadahide. TheLord Mayor's Show inLondon has long featured displays by the city's official trade guilds. Parades were at one time important advertisement when a travelingcircus arrived in a new town. Today, many parades in the United States are sponsored by department stores, such asMacy's, which expect the public spectacle to lure shoppers to the store.
TheReception of the Ambassadors From Siam at theChâteau de Fontainebleau was one such example, documented byJean-Léon Gérôme in 1864. The signing of surrender by Japanese diplomats and soldiers aboard an Americanbattle ship at the end ofWorld War II involved a strictly codified procession on and off the ship.
Processions play an important role in coronations, such as that ofElizabeth II of the United Kingdom in 1953, theShah ofIran in 1967,Otumfuo Nana Osei Tutu II of theAshanti in 1999, andNorodom Sihamoni ofCambodia in 2004.
Such as ancient Roman triumphs, thedurbar processions ofIndia, and modern reviewing of the troops by generals and heads of state.Return From Vienna, a painting byJozef Brandt, shows war booty taken from the Turks being escorted into easternEurope by soldiers.
Some processions are arranged forentertainment, purely forfun, such as those of community organizations and friendly societies, so popular inGreat Britain and theUnited States of America.
Protest marches are a form of procession.[29]
Religious ceremonies have since prehistory employed the procession of holy objects to inspire solidarity of belief. TheDoges of Venice once staged elaboratebarge processions to bless the waters on which Venice's tightly controlled maritime economy depended.
Processions used to mark thebeginning or end of an event, such as parades at the beginning ofcounty fairs or at theOlympic Games, or processions that begin and endfunerals,graduations, andweddings.
Processions are found in almost every form of religious worship, such asHoly Week processions. Some biblical examples were the processions with theArk of Covenant and the procession ofJesus on a donkey into Jerusalem.[30]
In a narrower sense of going forth, proceeding, the term is used in the technical language oftheology in the phrase Procession of theHoly Ghost, expressing the relation of the Third Person in the Triune Godhead to the Father and the Son.
It is impossible to describe in detail the vast development of processions during theMiddle Ages. The most important and characteristic of these still have a place in the ritual of theCatholic Church, as well as those of theChurch of England and theOrthodox Church.
TheProcession Path (Lat.ambitus templi) is the route taken by processions on solemn days in large churches—up the north aisle, round behind the high altar, down the south aisle, and then up the centre of the nave.[31]
For the Catholic Church, the rules governing them are laid down in theRituale Romanum (Tit. ix.), and they are classified in the following way:
There are also processions of honor, for instance to meet a royal personage, or thebishop on his first entry into hisdiocese (Pontif. Tom. iii.).
Those taking part in processions are to walk bare-headed (weather permitting), two and two, in decent costume, and with reverent mien;clergy andlaity, men and women, are to walk separately. The cross is carried at the head of the procession, andbanners embroidered with sacred pictures in places where this is customary; these banners must not be ofmilitary ortriangular shape.Violet is theprescribed colour for processions, except on Corpus Christi, or on a day when some other colour is mandated. The officiating priest wears acope, or at least asurplice with a violet stole, while other priests and clergy wear surplices.
A Eucharistic procession is one in which theHost is carried in procession in amonstrance. It is often covered with acanopy and accompanied with candles. At thelitaniae majores andminores and other penitential processions, joyful hymns are not allowed, but the litanies are sung, and, if the length of the procession requires, the penitential andgradual psalms. As to the discipline regarding processions the bishop, according to theCouncil of Trent (Sess. 25 de reg. cap. 6), appoints and regulates processions and public prayers outside the churches.
The observance or variation of the discipline belongs to theSacred Congregation of Rites; in pontifical processions, which are regulated by the masters of the ceremonies(magistri ceremoniarum pontificalium), these points are decided by the chief cardinal deacon. As to processions within the churches, some difference of opinion having arisen as to the regulating authority, the Sacred Congregation of Rites has decided that the bishop must ask, though not necessarily follow, the advice of the chapter in their regulation.[1]
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Typically the procession commences with the phanarion (a lantern) followed by the cross,[note 1] flanked by processionalbanners andicons, then choir and clergy, the deacons withcensers, the priests withicons, and then the faithful. Hymns particular to the event are sung. Typically the outside of the church is circled thrice; however, some processions proceed to a designated place where a ceremony,e.g., a baptism or burial, is performed.
TheReformation abolished in all Protestant countries those processions associated with the doctrine oftransubstantiation (Corpus Christi); theSacrament of the Lord's Supper, according to the 28thArticle of Religion of the Church of England was not by Christ's ordinance reserved, carried about, lifted up, or worshiped. It also abolished those associated with the cult of the Blessed Virgin and the saints. The stern simplicity ofCalvinism, indeed, would not tolerate religious processions of any kind, and from the Reformed Churches they vanished altogether.[citation needed] The more conservative temper of the Anglican and Lutheran communions, however, suffered the retention of such processions as did not conflict with the reformed doctrines, though even in these Churches they met with opposition and tended after a while to fall into disuse.
Liturgical processions were revived in the Church of England by the members of theOxford Movement during the 19th century.[33] InRitual Notes, an Anglo-Catholic liturgical manual, it is stated that "A solemn procession as part of the ceremony proper to the occasion, is ordered to be held respectively at Candlemas; on Palm Sunday; at the Rogations (i.e. on April 25th and the three days preceding Ascension); and on Corpus Christi ..." "A procession is a distinct act of worship in itself, though it is desirable (and accords with ancient practice) that it should have a definite purpose, such as to commemorate some notable event, or to honour the Blessed Sacrament".[34]
TheLutheran practice has varied at different times and in different countries. Thus, according to theWürttemberg Kirchenordnung of 1553, a funeral procession was prescribed, the bier being followed by the congregation singing hymns; the Brandenburg Kirchenordnung (1540) directed a cross-bearer to precede the procession and lighted candles to be carried, and this was prescribed also by the Waldeck Kirchenordnung of 1556. At present funeral processions survive in general only in the country districts; the processional cross or crucifix is still carried. In some provinces also the Lutheran Church has retained the ancient rogation processions in the week before Whitsuntide and, in some cases, in the month of May or on special occasions (e.g. days of humiliation, Busstage), processions about the fields to ask a blessing on the crops. On these occasions the ancient litanies are still used.
The wealth of display associated with processions makes them a rich subject for literary and visualart. Some examples include:
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Procession".Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 414–416.Thousands of events and processions are held each year across the country, from club nights and outdoor festivals to protest marches and demonstrations.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Procession Path".Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 417.
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