The oldest preserved record of the Croatian ethnonym's native variation*xъrvatъ is of the variable stem, attested in theBaška tablet instyle zvъnъmirъ kralъ xrъvatъskъ ("Zvonimir,Croatian king"),[16] while the Latin variationCroatorum is archaeologically confirmed on a church inscription found inBijaći nearTrogir dated to the end of the 8th or early 9th century.[17] The presumably oldest stoneinscription with fully preserved ethnonym is the 9th-centuryBranimir inscription found nearBenkovac, where DukeBranimir is styledDux Cruatorvm, likely dated between 879 and 892, during his rule.[18] The Latin termChroatorum is attributed to a charter of DukeTrpimir I of Croatia, dated to 852 in a 1568 copy of a lost original, but it is not certain if the original was indeed older than the Branimir inscription.[19][20]
The Roman period ends withAvar andCroat invasions in the late 6th and first half of the 7th century and the destruction of almost all Roman towns. Roman survivors retreated to more favourable sites on the coast, islands, and mountains. The city ofDubrovnik was founded by such survivors fromEpidaurum.[30]
According to the workDe Administrando Imperio written by 10th-century Byzantine EmperorConstantine VII,Croats settled in theRoman province of Dalmatia in the first half of the 7th century after they defeated theAvars.[32][33][34] Although there exist some scholarly disputes about the account's reliability and interpretation,[35][36] recent archaeological data has established that the migration and settlement of the Slavs/Croats was in the late 6th and early 7th century.[37][38][39] Eventually, adukedom was formed,Duchy of Croatia, ruled byBorna, as attested by chronicles ofEinhard starting in 818. The record represents the first document of Croatian realms,vassal states ofFrancia at the time.[40] Its neighbor to the North wasPrincipality of Lower Pannonia, at the time ruled by dukeLjudevit who ruled the territories between theDrava andSava rivers, centred from his fort atSisak. This population and territory throughout history was tightly related and connected to Croats and Croatia.[41]
Christianisation of Croats began in the 7th century at the time of archonPorga of Croatia, initially probably encompassed only the elite and related people,[42] but mostly finished by the 9th century.[43][44] The Frankish overlordship ended during the reign ofMislav,[45] or his successorTrpimir I.[46] The native Croatian royal dynasty was founded by duke Trpimir I in the mid 9th century, who defeated the Byzantine and Bulgarian forces.[47]
BanJosip Jelačić at the opening of the first modernCroatian Parliament (Sabor), 5 June 1848. The Croatian tricolour flag can be seen in the background.
For the next four centuries, the Kingdom of Croatia was ruled by theSabor (parliament) and aBan (viceroy) appointed by the king.[51] This period saw the rise of influential nobility such as theFrankopan andŠubić families to prominence, and ultimately numerous Bans from the two families.[52] An increasing threat ofOttoman conquest and a struggle against theRepublic of Venice for control of coastal areas ensued. The Venetians controlled most of Dalmatia by 1428, except thecity-state of Dubrovnik, which became independent.Ottoman conquests led to the 1493Battle of Krbava field and the 1526Battle of Mohács, both ending in decisive Ottoman victories. KingLouis II died at Mohács, and in 1527, theCroatian Parliament met in Cetin and chose Ferdinand I of theHouse of Habsburg as the new ruler of Croatia, under the condition that he protects Croatia against the Ottoman Empire while respecting its political rights.[51][53]
Following the decisive Ottoman victories, Croatia was split into civilian and military territories in 1538. The military territories became known as theCroatian Military Frontier and were under direct Habsburg control. Ottoman advances in Croatia continued until the 1593Battle of Sisak, the first decisive Ottoman defeat, when borders stabilised.[53] During theGreat Turkish War (1683–1698),Slavonia was regained, but westernBosnia, which had been part of Croatia before the Ottoman conquest, remained outside Croatian control.[53] The present-day border between the two countries is a remnant of this outcome.Dalmatia, the southern part of the border, was similarly defined by theFifth and theSeventh Ottoman–Venetian Wars.[54]
TheOttoman wars drove demographic changes. During the 16th century, Croats from western and northernBosnia,Lika,Krbava, the area between the riversUna andKupa, and especially from westernSlavonia, migrated towardsAustria. Present-dayBurgenland Croats are direct descendants of these settlers.[55][56] To replace the fleeing population, the Habsburgs encouraged Bosnians to provide military service in theMilitary Frontier.
By the 1860s, the failure of the policy became apparent, leading to theAustro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867. The creation of apersonal union between the Austrian Empire and theKingdom of Hungary followed. The treaty left Croatia's status to Hungary, which was resolved by theCroatian–Hungarian Settlement of 1868 when the kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia were united.[62] The Kingdom of Dalmatia remained under de facto Austrian control, whileRijeka retained the status ofcorpus separatum previously introduced in 1779.[50]
On 29 October 1918, the Croatian Parliament (Sabor) declared independence and decided to join the newly formedState of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs,[51] which in turn entered into union with theKingdom of Serbia on 4 December 1918 to form theKingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.[66] The Croatian Parliament never ratified the union with Serbia and Montenegro.[51] The1921 constitution defining the country as aunitary state and abolition of Croatian Parliament and historical administrative divisions effectively ended Croatian autonomy.
The political situation deteriorated further as Radić was assassinated in theNational Assembly byNRS member,Serbian nationalist politicianPuniša Račić in 1928, culminating in KingAlexander I's establishment of the6 January Dictatorship in 1929.[68] The dictatorship formally ended in 1931 when the king imposed a more unitary constitution.[69] The HSS, now led byVladko Maček, continued to advocate federalisation, resulting in theCvetković–Maček Agreement of August 1939 and the autonomousBanovina of Croatia. The Yugoslav government retained control of defence, internal security, foreign affairs, trade, and transport while other matters were left to the Croatian Sabor and a crown-appointed Ban.[70]
Aresistance movement emerged. On 22 June 1941,[81] the1st Sisak Partisan Detachment was formed nearSisak, the first military unit formed by a resistance movement inoccupied Europe.[82] That sparked the beginning of theYugoslav Partisan movement, a communist, multi-ethnic anti-fascist resistance group led byJosip Broz Tito.[83] In ethnic terms, Croats were the second-largest contributors to the Partisan movement after Serbs.[84] In per capita terms, Croats contributed proportionately to their population within Yugoslavia.[85] By May 1944 (according to Tito), Croats made up 30% of the Partisan's ethnic composition, despite making up 22% of the population.[84] The movement grew fast, and at theTehran Conference in December 1943, the Partisans gained recognition from theAllies.[86]
CardinalAloysius Stepinac with the Croatian communist leaderVladimir Bakarić at the celebration ofMay Day, shortly before Stepinac was arrested and convicted by the communists
Based on the studies onwartime and post-war casualties by demographerVladimir Žerjavić and statisticianBogoljub Kočović, a total of 295,000 people from the territory (not including territoriesceded from Italy after the war) died, which amounted to 7.3% of the population,[91] among whom were 125–137,000 Serbs, 118–124,000 Croats, 16–17,000 Jews, and 15,000 Roma.[92][93] In addition, from areas joined to Croatia after the war, a total of 32,000 people died, among whom 16,000 were Italians and 15,000 were Croats.[94] Approximately 200,000 Croats from the entirety of Yugoslavia (including Croatia) and abroad were killed in total throughout the war and its immediate aftermath, approximately 5.4% of the population.[95][96]
The declaration contributed to a national movement seeking greater civil rights and redistribution of the Yugoslav economy, culminating in theCroatian Spring of 1971, which was suppressed by Yugoslav leadership.[98] Still, the1974 Yugoslav Constitution gave increased autonomy to federal units, basically fulfilling a goal of the Croatian Spring and providing a legal basis for independence of the federative constituents.[99] At the same time, there was a substantial Croatian diaspora during the Cold War, which included efforts aimed at forming a government in exile.[100]
By the end of 1991, a high-intensity conflict fought along a wide front reduced Croatia's control to about two-thirds of its territory.[110][111] Serb paramilitary groups then began a campaign of killing, terror, and expulsion of the Croats in the occupied territories, killing thousands[112] of Croat civilians and expelling or displacing as many as 400,000–500,000 Croats and other non-Serbs from their homes.[113][114] Serbs living in Croatian towns, especially those near the front lines, were subjected to various forms of discrimination.[115] Croatian Serbs in Eastern and Western Slavonia and parts of the Krajina were forced to flee or were expelled by Croatian forces, though on a restricted scale and in lesser numbers.[116] TheCroatian Government publicly deplored these practices and sought to stop them, indicating that they were not a part of the Government's policy.[117]
After the end of the war, Croatia faced the challenges of post-war reconstruction, the return of refugees, establishing democracy, protecting human rights, and general social and economic development.
The 2000s were characterized by democratization, economic growth, structural and social reforms, and problems such as unemployment, corruption, and the inefficiency of public administration.[129] In November 2000 and March 2001, the Parliament amended the Constitution, first adopted on 22 December 1990, changing its bicameral structure back into its historic unicameral form and reducing presidential powers.[130][131]
Croatia served on theUnited Nations Security Council in the 2008–2009 term for the first time, assuming the non-permanent seat in December 2008.[139] On 1 April 2009, Croatia joinedNATO.[140]
Croatia became the 28th EU member country on 1 July 2013.
A wave of anti-government protests in 2011 reflected a general dissatisfaction with the current political and economic situation. The protests brought together diverse political persuasions in response to recent government corruption scandals and called for early elections. On 28 October 2011MPs voted to dissolve Parliament and the protests gradually subsided.President Ivo Josipović agreed to a dissolution ofSabor on Monday, 31 October and scheduled new elections for Sunday 4 December 2011.[141][142][143]
On 30 June 2011, Croatia successfully completed EU accession negotiations.[144] The country signed theAccession Treaty on 9 December 2011 and held areferendum on 22 January 2012, where Croatian citizens voted in favor of an EU membership.[145][146]Croatia joined the European Union on 1 July 2013.
Croatia was affected by the2015 European migrant crisis when Hungary's closure of borders with Serbia pushed over 700,000 refugees and migrants to pass through Croatia on their way to other EU countries.[147]
On 19 October 2016,Andrej Plenković began serving as the current Croatian Prime Minister.[148] The most recent presidential elections, held on 5 January 2020, electedZoran Milanović as president.[149]
On 25 January 2022, theOECD Council decided to open accession negotiations with Croatia. Throughout the accession process, Croatia was to implement numerous reforms that will advance all spheres of activity – from public services and the justice system to education, transport, finance, health, and trade. In line with the OECD Accession Roadmap from June 2022, Croatia will undergo technical reviews by 25 OECD committees and is so far progressing at a faster pace than expected. Full membership is expected in 2025 and is the last big foreign policy goal Croatia still has to achieve.[150][151][152][153]
On 1 January 2023, Croatia adopted theeuro as its official currency, replacing thekuna, and became the 20thEurozone member. On the same day, Croatia became the 27th member of the border-freeSchengen Area, thus marking its full EU integration.[154]
The territory covers 56,594 square kilometres (21,851 square miles), consisting of 56,414 square kilometres (21,782 square miles) of land and 128 square kilometres (49 square miles) of water. It is the world's 127th largest country.[157] Elevation ranges from the mountains of theDinaric Alps with the highest point of theDinara peak at 1,831 metres (6,007 feet) near the border with Bosnia and Herzegovina in the south[157] to the shore of the Adriatic Sea which makes up its entire southwest border. Insular Croatia consists of overa thousand islands and islets varying in size, 48 of which arepermanently inhabited. The largest islands areCres andKrk,[157] each of them having an area of around 405 square kilometres (156 square miles).
The hilly northern parts ofHrvatsko Zagorje and the flat plains of Slavonia in the east which is part of thePannonian Basin are traversed by major rivers such asDanube,Drava,Kupa, and theSava. The Danube, Europe's second longest river, runs through the city ofVukovar in the extreme east and forms part of the border withVojvodina. The central and southern regions near the Adriatic coastline and islands consist of low mountains and forested highlands. Natural resources found in quantities significant enough for production include oil, coal, bauxite, low-grade iron ore, calcium, gypsum, natural asphalt, silica, mica, clays, salt, and hydropower.[157]Karst topography makes up about half of Croatia and is especially prominent in the Dinaric Alps.[158] Croatia hostsdeep caves, 49 of which are deeper than 250 m (820.21 ft), 14 deeper than 500 m (1,640.42 ft) and three deeper than 1,000 m (3,280.84 ft). Croatia's most famous lakes are thePlitvice lakes, a system of 16 lakes with waterfalls connecting them overdolomite andlimestone cascades. The lakes are renowned for their distinctive colours, ranging from turquoise to mint green, grey or blue.[159]
Most of Croatia has a moderately warm and rainycontinental climate as defined by theKöppen climate classification. Mean monthly temperature ranges between −3 °C (27 °F) in January and 18 °C (64 °F) in July. The coldest parts of the country areLika andGorski Kotar featuring a snowy, forested climate at elevations above 1,200 metres (3,900 feet). The warmest areas are at the Adriatic coast and especially in its immediate hinterland characterised byMediterranean climate, as the sea moderates temperature highs. Consequently, temperature peaks are more pronounced in continental areas.
The lowest temperature of −35.5 °C (−31.9 °F) was recorded on 3 February 1919 inČakovec,[160] and the highest temperature of 42.8 °C (109.0 °F) was recorded on 4 August 1981 inPloče.[161]
Mean annual precipitation ranges between 600 millimetres (24 inches) and 3,500 millimetres (140 inches) depending on geographic region and climate type. The least precipitation is recorded in the outer islands (Biševo,Lastovo,Svetac,Vis) and the eastern parts of Slavonia. However, in the latter case, rain occurs mostly during thegrowing season. The maximum precipitation levels are observed in the Dinaric Alps, in the Gorski Kotar peaks ofRisnjak andSnježnik.[160]
Prevailing winds in the interior are light to moderate northeast or southwest, and in the coastal area, prevailing winds are determined by local features. Higher wind velocities are more often recorded in cooler months along the coast, generally as the cool northeasterlybura or less frequently as the warm southerlyjugo. The sunniest parts are the outer islands, Hvar and Korčula, where more than 2700 hours of sunshine are recorded per year, followed by the middle and southern Adriatic Sea area in general, and northern Adriatic coast, all with more than 2000 hours of sunshine per year.[162]
Croatia can be subdivided intoecoregions based on climate and geomorphology. The country is one of the richest in Europe in terms of biodiversity.[163][164] Croatia has four types of biogeographical regions—theMediterranean along the coast and in its immediate hinterland,Alpine in most of Lika and Gorski Kotar,Pannonian along Drava and Danube, andContinental in the remaining areas. The most significant arekarst habitats which include submerged karst, such asZrmanja andKrka canyons and tufa barriers, as well as underground habitats. The country contains three ecoregions:Dinaric Mountains mixed forests,Pannonian mixed forests, andIllyrian deciduous forests.[165]
The karst geology harbours approximately7,000 caves and pits, some of which are the habitat of the only known aquatic cavevertebrate—theolm. Forests are abundant, covering 2,490,000 hectares (6,200,000 acres) or 44% of Croatian land area. Other habitat types include wetlands, grasslands, bogs, fens, scrub habitats, coastal and marine habitats.[166]
Croatia hosts 37,000 known plant and animal species, but their actual number is estimated to be between 50,000 and 100,000.[166] More than a thousand species are endemic, especially in Velebit and Biokovo mountains, Adriatic islands and karst rivers. Legislation protects 1,131 species.[166] The most serious threat is habitat loss and degradation. A further problem is presented by invasive alien species, especiallyCaulerpa taxifolia algae.
Invasive algae are regularly monitored and removed to protectbenthic habitat. Indigenous cultivated plant strains and domesticated animal breeds are numerous. They include five breeds of horses, five of cattle, eight of sheep, two of pigs, and one poultry. Indigenous breeds include nine that are endangered or critically endangered.[166] Croatia has 444protected areas, encompassing 9% of the country. Those include eightnational parks, two strict reserves, and tennature parks. The most famous protected area and the oldestnational park in Croatia isPlitvice Lakes National Park, aUNESCO World Heritage Site. Velebit Nature Park is a part of the UNESCOMan and the Biosphere Programme. The strict and special reserves, as well as the national and nature parks, are managed and protected by the central government, while other protected areas are managed by counties. In 2005, the National Ecological Network was set up, as the first step in the preparation of the EU accession and joining of theNatura 2000 network.[166]
The Republic of Croatia is a unitary, constitutional state using aparliamentary system. Government powers in Croatia are legislative, executive, and judiciary powers.[168]Thepresident of the republic (Croatian:Predsjednik Republike) is thehead of state, directly elected to a five-year term and is limited by the Constitution to two terms. In addition to serving ascommander in chief of the armed forces, the president has the procedural duty of appointing the prime minister with the parliament and has some influence on foreign policy.[168]
TheGovernment is headed by theprime minister, who has four deputy prime ministers and 16 ministers in charge of particular sectors.[169] As theexecutive branch, it is responsible for proposing legislation and a budget, enforcing the laws, and guiding foreign and internal policies. The Government is seated atBanski dvori in Zagreb.[168]
Croatia has acivil law legal system in which law arises primarily from written statutes, with judges serving as implementers and not creators of law. Its development was largely influenced by German and Austrian legal systems. Croatian law is divided into two principal areas—private andpublic law. BeforeEU accession negotiations were completed, Croatian legislation had been fully harmonised with theCommunity acquis.[172]
The main national courts are theConstitutional Court, which oversees violations of the Constitution, and theSupreme Court, which is the highest court of appeal. Administrative, Commercial,County, Misdemeanor, and Municipal courts handle cases in their respective domains.[173] Cases falling within judicial jurisdiction are in the first instance decided by a single professional judge, while appeals are deliberated in mixed tribunals of professional judges. Lay magistrates also participate in trials.[174] TheState's Attorney Office is the judicial body constituted of public prosecutors empowered to instigate prosecution of perpetrators of offences.[175]
PresidentZoran Milanović during an official arrival ceremony withNATO leaders on 10 July 2024, at theWhite House, Washington, D.C.
As of 2019, the CroatianMinistry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration employed 1,381[needs update] personnel and expended 765.295 million kunas (€101.17 million).[180] Stated aims of Croatian foreign policy include enhancing relations with neighbouring countries, developing international co-operation and promotion of the Croatian economy and Croatia itself.[181]
Croatia is a member of the European Union. As of 2021, Croatia had unsolved border issues with Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia.[182] Croatia is a member of NATO.[183][184] On 1 January 2023, Croatia simultaneously joined both theSchengen Area and theEurozone,[185] having previously joined the ERM II on 10 July 2020.
The Croatian diaspora consists of communities of ethnicCroats and Croatian citizens living outside Croatia. Croatia maintains intensive contacts with Croatian communities abroad (e.g., administrative and financial support of cultural, sports activities, and economic initiatives). Croatia actively maintain foreign relations to strengthen and guarantee the rights of the Croatian minority in various host countries.[186][187][188]
The Croatian Armed Forces (CAF) consist of theAir Force,Army, andNavy branches in addition to the Education and Training Command and Support Command. The CAF is headed by theGeneral Staff, which reports to thedefence minister, who in turn reports to the president. According to the constitution, the president is thecommander-in-chief of the armed forces. In case of immediate threat during wartime, he issues orders directly to the General Staff.[189]
Following the 1991–95 war, defence spending and CAF size began a constant decline. As of 2019[update], military spending was an estimated 1.68% of the country's GDP, 67th globally.[190] In 2005 the budget fell below the NATO-required 2% of GDP, down from the record high of 11.1% in 1994.[191] Traditionally relying on conscripts, the CAF went through a period of reforms focused on downsizing, restructuring andprofessionalisation in the years beforeaccession to NATO in April 2009. According to a presidential decree issued in 2006, the CAF employed around 18,100 active duty military personnel, 3,000 civilians and 2,000 voluntary conscripts between 18 and 30 years old in peacetime.[189]
Until 2008 military service was obligatory for men at age 18 and conscripts served six-month tours of duty, reduced in 2001 from the earlier scheme of nine months. Conscientious objectors could instead opt for eight months of civilian service.[192] Compulsory conscription was abolished in January 2008,[157] but is set to be reintroduced in January 2025 with two months of active duty. The decision was influenced by the rising tensions in Europe and the region, following theRussian invasion of Ukraine.[193][194]
As of May 2019[update], the Croatian military had 72 members stationed in foreign countries as part of United Nations-led international peacekeeping forces.[195] As of 2019[update], 323 troops served the NATO-ledISAF force in Afghanistan. Another 156 served withKFOR in Kosovo.[196][197]
Croatia has amilitary-industrial sector that exported around 493 million kunas (€65,176 million) worth of military equipment in 2020.[198] Croatian-made weapons and vehicles used by CAF include the standard sidearmHS2000 manufactured byHS Produkt and theM-84D battle tank designed by theĐuro Đaković factory. Uniforms and helmets worn by CAF soldiers are locally produced and marketed to other countries.[199]
According to the 2024Global Peace Index, Croatia is the 15th most peaceful country in the world.[200]
Croatia was first divided into counties in theMiddle Ages.[201] The divisions changed over time to reflect losses of territory to Ottoman conquest and subsequent liberation of the same territory, changes of the political status of Dalmatia, Dubrovnik, andIstria. The traditional division of the country into counties was abolished in the 1920s when the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and the subsequent Kingdom of Yugoslavia introducedoblasts andbanovinas respectively.[202]
Communist-ruled Croatia, as a constituent part of post-World War II Yugoslavia, abolished earlier divisions and introduced municipalities, subdividing Croatia into approximately one hundred municipalities. Counties were reintroduced in 1992 legislation, significantly altered in terms of territory relative to the pre-1920s subdivisions. In 1918, theTransleithanian part was divided into eight counties with their seats inBjelovar,Gospić,Ogulin,Osijek,Požega,Varaždin, Vukovar, and Zagreb.[203][204]
As of 1992, Croatia is divided into20 counties and thecapital city of Zagreb, the latter having the dual authority and legal status of a county and a city. County borders changed in some instances, last revised in 2006. The counties subdivide into127 cities and429 municipalities.[205]Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS)division is performed in several tiers. NUTS 1 level considers the entire country in a single unit; three NUTS 2 regions come below that. Those are Northwest Croatia, Central and Eastern (Pannonian) Croatia, and Adriatic Croatia. The latter encompasses the counties along the Adriatic coast. Northwest Croatia includes Koprivnica-Križevci, Krapina-Zagorje, Međimurje, Varaždin, the city of Zagreb, and Zagreb counties and the Central and Eastern (Pannonian) Croatia includes the remaining areas—Bjelovar-Bilogora, Brod-Posavina, Karlovac, Osijek-Baranja, Požega-Slavonia, Sisak-Moslavina, Virovitica-Podravina, and Vukovar-Syrmia counties. Individual counties and the city of Zagreb also represent NUTS 3 level subdivision units in Croatia. The NUTSlocal administrative unit (LAU) divisions are two-tiered. LAU 1 divisions match the counties and the city of Zagreb in effect making those the same as NUTS 3 units, while LAU 2 subdivisions correspond to cities and municipalities.[206]
Croatia's economy qualifies ashigh-income anddeveloped.[207]International Monetary Fund data projects that Croatiannominal GDP will reach $88.08 Billion in 2024, or $22,966 per capita.[208]Purchasing power parity (PPP) GDP will increase to $175.269 Billion, or $45,702 per capita.[208] According toEurostat, Croatian GDP per capita in PPS stood at 76% of the EU average in 2023, with real GDP growth for the year being 2.8%.[209][210] The average net salary of a Croatian worker in April 2024 was €1,326 per month, the average gross salary roughly €1,834 per month.[211] The unemployment rate dropped to 5.6% in that month, down from 7.2% in July 2019 and 9.6% in December 2018.[211] The unemployment rate between 1996 and 2018 averaged 17.38%, reaching an all-time high of 23.60% in January 2002 and a record low of 8.40% in September 2018.[212] In 2017, economic output was dominated by theservice sector — accounting for 70.1% of GDP – followed by theindustrial sector with 26.2% and agriculture accounting for 3.7%.[213]
According to 2017 data, 1.9% of the workforce were employed in agriculture, 27.3% by industry and 70.8% in services.[213] Shipbuilding, food processing, pharmaceuticals, information technology, biochemical, and timber industry dominate the industrial sector. In 2018, Croatian exports were valued at 108 Billion kunas (€14.61 Billion) with 176 Billion kunas (€23.82 Billion) worth of imports. Croatia's largesttrading partner was the rest of the European Union, led by Germany, Italy, and Slovenia.[214] According to Eurostat, Croatia has the highest quantity of water resources per capita in the EU (30,000 m3).[215]
As a result of the war, economic infrastructure sustained massive damage, particularly the tourism industry. From 1989 to 1993, the GDP fell 40.5%. The Croatian state still controls significant economic sectors, with government expenditures accounting for 40% of GDP.[216] A particular concern is a backlogged judiciary system, with inefficientpublic administration and corruption, upending land ownership. In the 2022Corruption Perceptions Index, published byTransparency International, the country ranked 57th.[217] At the end of June 2020, the national debt stood at 85.3% of GDP.[218]
Tourism dominates the Croatian service sector and accounts for up to 20% of GDP. Tourism income for 2019 was estimated to be €10.5 billion.[219] Its positive effects are felt throughout the economy, increasing retail business, and increasing seasonal employment. The industry is counted as an export business because foreign visitor spending significantly reduces the country's trade imbalance.[220]
The tourist industry has rapidly grown, recording a sharp rise in tourist numbers since independence, attracting more than 17 million visitors each year (as of 2017[update]).[221] Germany, Slovenia, Austria, Italy, United Kingdom, Czechia, Poland, Hungary, France, Netherlands, Slovakia and Croatia itself provide the most visitors.[222] Tourist stays averaged 4.7 days in 2019.[223]
Much of the tourist industry is concentrated along the coast.Opatija was the first holiday resort. It first became popular in the middle of the 19th century. By the 1890s, it had become one of the largest European health resorts.[224] Resorts sprang up along the coast and islands, offering services catering tomass tourism and various niche markets. The most significant arenautical tourism, supported by marinas with more than 16 thousand berths,cultural tourism relying on the appeal of medieval coastal cities and cultural events taking place during the summer. Inland areas offeragrotourism,mountain resorts, andspas.Zagreb is a significant destination, rivalling major coastal cities and resorts.[225]
Croatia ranked as the 23rd-most popular tourist destination in the world according to theWorld Tourism Organization in 2019.[228] About 15% of these visitors,[which?][quantify] or over one million per year, participate innaturism, for which Croatia is famous. It was the first European country to develop commercial naturist resorts.[229] In 2023, luggage storage company Bounce gave Croatia the highest solo travel index in the world (7.58),[230] while a jointPinterest andZola wedding trends report from 2023 put Croatia among the most popular honeymoon destinations.[231]
Themotorway network was largely built in the late 1990s and the 2000s. As of December 2020, Croatia had completed 1,313.8 kilometres (816.4 miles) of motorways, connecting Zagreb to other regions and following variousEuropean routes and fourPan-European corridors.[232][233][234] The busiest motorways are theA1, connecting Zagreb to Split and theA3, passing east to west through northwest Croatia and Slavonia.[235]
A widespread network ofstate roads in Croatia acts as motorwayfeeder roads while connecting major settlements. The high quality and safety levels of the Croatian motorway network were tested and confirmed by EuroTAP and EuroTest programmes.[236][237]
Railways
Croatia has anextensive rail network spanning 2,604 kilometres (1,618 miles), including 984 kilometres (611 miles) of electrified railways and 254 kilometres (158 miles) of double track railways.[238] The most significant railways in Croatia are within the Pan-European transport corridors Vb and X connectingRijeka toBudapest and Ljubljana to Belgrade, both viaZagreb.[232]Croatian Railways operates all rail services.[239] In 2024, theEuropean Investment Bank committed €400 million to support the revitalization of the railway system, focusing on green and digital transformations.[240][241] In July 2024, a significant agreement was signed for the acquisition of sixelectro-diesel multiple units (EDMUs) to improve connectivity betweenSplit and Zagreb. Valued at €57.3 million and financed through an EIB loan, this project is part of the broader initiative to modernize Croatia's railway infrastructure.[241]
The construction of 2.4-kilometre-longPelješac Bridge, the biggest infrastructure project in Croatia connects the two-halves of Dubrovnik-Neretva County and shortens the route from the West to thePelješac peninsula and the islands ofKorčula andLastovo by more than 32 km. The construction of the Pelješac Bridge started in July 2018 after Croatian road operatorHrvatske ceste (HC) signed a 2.08 billionkuna deal for the works with a Chinese consortium led byChina Road and Bridge Corporation (CRBC). The project was co-financed by the European Union with €357 million. The construction was completed in July 2022.[242]
The busiest cargo seaport is thePort of Rijeka. The busiest passenger ports areSplit and Zadar.[249][250] Many minor ports serve ferries connecting numerous islands and coastal cities with ferry lines to several cities in Italy.[251] The largestriver port isVukovar, located on theDanube, representing the nation's outlet to the Pan-European transport corridor VII.[232][252]
610 kilometres (380 miles) of crude oil pipelines serve Croatia, connecting theRijeka oil terminal with refineries in Rijeka andSisak, and several transhipment terminals.The system has a capacity of 20 million tonnes per year.[253] The natural gas transportation system comprises 2,113 kilometres (1,313 miles) of trunk and regional pipelines, and more than 300 associated structures, connecting production rigs, the Okoli natural gas storage facility, 27 end-users and 37 distribution systems.[254] Croatia also plays an important role in regional energy security. The floatingliquefied natural gas import terminal offKrk islandLNG Hrvatska commenced operations on 1 January 2021, positioning Croatia as a regional energy leader and contributing to diversification of Europe's energy supply.[13]
In 2010, Croatian energy production covered 85% of nationwide natural gas and 19% of oil demand.[255] In 2016, Croatia's primary energy production involved natural gas (24.8%), hydropower (28.3%), crude oil (13.6%), fuelwood (27.6%), and heat pumps and other renewable energy sources (5.7%).[256] In 2017, net total electrical power production reached 11,543 GWh, while it imported 12,157 GWh or about 40% of its electric power energy needs.[257]
Thetotal fertility rate of 1.46 children per mother, is one of thelowest in the world, far below the replacement rate of 2.1; it remains considerably below the high of 6.18 children rate in 1885.[213][261] Croatia'sdeath rate has continuously exceeded itsbirth rate since 1998.[262] Croatia subsequently has one of the world's oldest populations, with an average age of 45.1 years.[157] The population rose steadily from 2.1 million in 1857 until 1991, when it peaked at 4.7 million, with the exceptions of censuses taken in 1921 and 1948, i.e., following the world wars.[263] The natural growth rate is negative[157] with thedemographic transition completed in the 1970s.[264] In recent years, the Croatian government has been pressured to increase permit quotas for foreign workers, reaching an all-time high of 68.100 in 2019.[265] In accordance with its immigration policy, Croatia is trying to entice emigrants to return.[266] From 2008 to 2018, Croatia's population dropped by 10%.[267]
The population decrease was greater a result of war for independence. The war displaced large numbers of the population and emigration increased. In 1991, in predominantly occupied areas, more than 400,000 Croats were either removed from their homes bySerb forces or fled the violence.[268] During the war's final days, about 150–200,000 Serbs fled before the arrival of Croatian forces duringOperation Storm.[122][269] After the war, the number of displaced persons fell to about 250,000. The Croatian government cared for displaced persons via the social security system and the Office of Displaced Persons and Refugees.[270] Most of the territories abandoned during the war were settled by Croat refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina, mostly from north-western Bosnia, while some displaced people returned to their homes.[271][272]
2011 Croatian population density by county in persons per km2
According to the 2013 United Nations report, 17.6% of Croatia's population were immigrants.[273] According to the 2021 census, the majority of inhabitants are Croats (91.6%), followed by Serbs (3.2%),Bosniaks (0.62%),Roma (0.46%),Albanians (0.36%),Italians (0.36%),Hungarians (0.27%),Czechs (0.20%),Slovenes (0.20%),Slovaks (0.10%),Macedonians (0.09%),Germans (0.09%),Montenegrins (0.08%), and others (1.56%).[4] Approximately 4 million Croatslive abroad.[274]
According to the 2021 census, 87.39% of Croatians identify as Christian; of these, Catholics make up the largest group, accounting for 78.97% of the population, after which followsEastern Orthodoxy (3.32%),Protestantism (0.26%), and other Christians (4.83%). The largest religion after Christianity isIslam (1.32%). 4.71% of the population describe itself as non-religious.[276] In theEurostat Eurobarometer Poll of 2010, 69% of the population responded that "they believe there is a God".[277] In a 2009 Gallup poll, 70% answered yes to the question "Is religion an important part of your daily life?"[278] Yet, only 24% of the population attends religious services regularly.[279]
Croatian is the official language of the Republic of Croatia and has been anofficial language of the European Union since Croatia's accession in 2013.[280][281] Croatian replacedLatin as the official language of the Croatian government in the 19th century.[282] Following theVienna Literary Agreement in 1850, the language and its Latin alphabet underwent reforms to create an unified "Croatian or Serbian" or "Serbo-Croatian" standard, which under various names became the official language ofYugoslavia.[283] InSFR Yugoslavia, from 1972 to 1989, the language was constitutionally designated as the "Croatian literary language" and the "Croatian or Serbian language". It was the result of a resistance to andsecession from "Serbo-Croatian" in the form of theDeclaration on the Status and Name of the Croatian Literary Language as part of theCroatian Spring.[284] Since gaining independence in the early 1990s, the Republic of Croatia constitutionally designates the language as "Croatian language" and regulates it throughlinguistic prescription. The long-standing aspiration for development of its own expressions and thus enrichment of the language, as opposed to the adoption of foreign solutions in the form ofloanwords, has been described by linguists asCroatian linguistic purism.[285]
According to the 2021 Census, 95.25% of citizens declared Croatian as their native language, 1.16% declared Serbian as their native language, while no other language reaches 0.26%.[288] Croatian is a member of theSouth Slavic languages and is written using theLatin alphabet. There are three major dialects spoken on the territory of Croatia, with standard Croatian based on theShtokavian dialect. TheChakavian andKajkavian dialects are distinguished from Shtokavian by theirlexicon,phonology andsyntax.[289]
A 2011 survey revealed that 78% of Croats claim knowledge of at least one foreign language.[290] According to a 2005 EC survey, 49% of Croats speak English as the second language, 34% speak German, 14% speak Italian, 10% speak French, 4% speak Russian and 2% speak Spanish. However several large municipalities supportminority languages. A majority of Slovenes (59%) have some knowledge of Croatian.[291] The country is a part of various language-based international associations, most notably theEuropean Union Language Association.[292]
University of Zagreb is the largest Croatian university and the oldest university in the area covering Central Europe south ofVienna and all of Southeastern Europe.
As of 2021, the literacy rate in Croatia was 99.45%.[293][294] Primary education in Croatia starts at the age of six or seven and consists of eight grades. In 2007 a law was passed to increase free, noncompulsory education until 18 years of age. Compulsory education consists of eight grades of elementary school.
Secondary education is provided bygymnasiums and vocational schools. As of the 2022/2023 school year, there were 2,073 elementary schools and 738 upper secondary schools in Croatia.[295] Primary and secondary education are also available in languages of recognised minorities in Croatia, where classes are held in Czech, Hungarian, Italian, Serbian, German and Slovak languages.[296]
There are 133 elementary and secondary levelmusic andart schools,[297] as well as 83 elementary and 44 secondary schools for disabled children and youth[298] and 11 elementary and 52 secondary schools for adults.[299] Nationwideleaving exams (Croatian:državna matura) were introduced for secondary education students in the school year 2009–2010. It comprises three compulsory subjects (Croatian language, mathematics, and a foreign language) and optional subjects and is a prerequisite for university education.[300]Croatia has eight public universities and two private universities.[301] TheUniversity of Zadar, the first university in Croatia, was founded in 1396 and remained active until 1807, when other institutions of higher education took over until the foundation of the renewed University of Zadar in 2002.[302] TheUniversity of Zagreb, founded in 1669, is the oldest continuously operating university in Southeast Europe.[303] There are also 15polytechnics, of which two are private, and 30 higher education institutions, of which 27 are private.[301] In total, there are 131 institutions of higher education in Croatia, attended by more than 160 thousand students.[304]
TheEuropean Investment Bank provided digital infrastructure and equipment to around 150 primary and secondary schools in Croatia. Twenty of these schools got specialised assistance in the form of gear, software, and services to help them integrate the teaching and administrative operations.[308][309] In 2024, the EIB extended a €207 million loan to theCity of Zagreb for infrastructure upgrades, including investments in renewable energy, energy efficiency projects, social and affordable housing, schools, and kindergartens.[310][311] Additionally, the EIB signed a €49 million loan with theCity of Split to co-finance its 2023–2027 multi-sector investment programme, which includes refurbishing public buildings, increasing energy efficiency, and improving technical equipment for public information and communication.[310][311]
Croatia has auniversal health care system, whose roots can be traced back to the Hungarian-Croatian Parliament Act of 1891, providing a form of mandatory insurance of all factory workers and craftsmen.[312] The population is covered by a basic health insurance plan provided by statute and optional insurance. In 2017, annual healthcare related expenditures reached 22.2 billion kuna (around €3.0 billion).[313] Healthcare expenditures comprise only 0.6% of private health insurance and public spending.[314] In 2022, Croatia spent around 7.2% of its GDP on healthcare.[315]In 2025, Croatia ranked 53rd in the world in life expectancy with 75.8 years for men and 81.9 years for women, and it had a lowinfant mortality rate of 3.3 per 1,000live births.[316]
There are hundreds of healthcare institutions in Croatia, including 75 hospitals, and 13 clinics with 23,049 beds. The hospitals and clinics care for more than 700 thousand patients per year and employ 6,642medical doctors, including 4,773 specialists.[317] There is a total of 69,841 health workers.[318] There are 119 emergency units in health centres, responding to more than a million calls.[319] The principal cause of death in 2022 wascardiovascular disease at 34.3% for men and 43.8% for women, followed byhypertensive disease.[320] In 2022 it was estimated that 37% of Croatians are smokers.[321] According to 2022 data, 35.65% of the Croatian adult population is obese.[322]
Because of its geographical position, Croatia represents a blend of four different cultural spheres. It has been a crossroads of influences from western culture and the east since the schism between theWestern Roman Empire and theByzantine Empire, and also from Central Europe andMediterranean culture.[324] TheIllyrian movement was the most significant period of national cultural history, as the 19th century proved crucial to the emancipation of Croatians and saw unprecedented developments in all fields of art and culture, giving rise to manyhistorical figures.[60]
In 2019, Croatia had 95 professional theatres, 30 professional children's theatres, and 51 amateur theatres visited by more than 2.27 million viewers per year. Professional theatres employ 1,195 artists. There are 42 professional orchestras, ensembles, and choirs, attracting an annual attendance of 297 thousand. There are 75 cinemas with 166 screens and attendance of 5.026 million.[330]
Croatia has 222 museums, visited by more than 2.71 million people in 2016. Furthermore, there are 1,768 libraries, containing 26.8 million volumes, and 19 state archives.[331] The book publishing market is dominated by several major publishers and the industry's centrepiece event—Interliber exhibition held annually atZagreb Fair.[332]
Architecture in Croatia reflects influences of bordering nations. Austrian and Hungarian influence is visible in public spaces and buildings in the north and the central regions, architecture found along coasts of Dalmatia and Istria exhibits Venetian influence.[333] Squares named after culture heroes, parks, and pedestrian-only zones, are features of Croatian towns and cities, especially where large scaleBaroque urban planning took place, for instance in Osijek (Tvrđa), Varaždin, and Karlovac.[334][335] The subsequent influence of theArt Nouveau was reflected in contemporary architecture.[336] The architecture is the Mediterranean with a Venetian and Renaissance influence in major coastal urban areas exemplified in works ofGiorgio da Sebenico andNicolas of Florence such as theCathedral of St. James in Šibenik. The oldest preserved examples of Croatian architecture are the 9th-century churches, with the largest and the most representative among them beingChurch of St. Donatus inZadar.[337][338]
Marko Marulić (18 August 1450 – 5 January 1524), Croatian poet, lawyer, judge, and Renaissance humanist who coined the term "psychology". He is thenational poet of Croatia.
Besides the architecture encompassing the oldest artworks, there is a history of artists in Croatia reaching the Middle Ages. In that period the stone portal of theTrogir Cathedral was made byRadovan, representing the most important monument ofRomanesque sculpture fromMedieval Croatia. TheRenaissance had the greatest impact on the Adriatic Sea coast since the remainder was embroiled in the Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War. With the waning of the Ottoman Empire, art flourished during theBaroque andRococo. The 19th and 20th centuries brought affirmation of numerous Croatian artisans, helped by several patrons of the arts such as bishopJosip Juraj Strossmayer.[339] Croatian artists of the period achieving renown wereVlaho Bukovac,Ivan Meštrović, andIvan Generalić.[337][340]
Croatian music varies from classical operas to modern-day rock.Vatroslav Lisinski created the country's first opera,Love and Malice, in 1846.Ivan Zajc composed more than a thousand pieces of music, including masses and oratorios. PianistIvo Pogorelić has performed across the world.[340]
In Croatia, the Constitution guarantees the freedom of the press and the freedom of speech.[344] Croatia ranked 64th in the 2019Press Freedom Index report compiled byReporters Without Borders which noted that journalists who investigate corruption, organised crime or war crimes face challenges and that the Government was trying to influence the public broadcasterHRT's editorial policies.[345] In its 2019 Freedom in the World report, theFreedom House classified freedoms of press and speech in Croatia as generally free from political interference and manipulation, noting that journalists still face threats and occasional attacks.[346] The state-owned news agencyHINA runs awire service in Croatian and English on politics, economics, society, and culture.[347]
As of January 2021[update], there are thirteen nationwide free-to-airDVB-T television channels, withCroatian Radiotelevision (HRT) operating four,RTL Televizija three, andNova TV operating two channels, and theCroatian Olympic Committee, Kapital Net d.o.o., and Author d.o.o. companies operate the remaining three.[349] Also, there are 21 regional or local DVB-T television channels.[350] The HRT is also broadcasting a satellite TV channel.[351] In 2020, there were 147 radio stations and 27 TV stations in Croatia.[352][353] Cable television andIPTV networks are gaining ground. Cable television already serves 450 thousand people, around 10% of the total population of the country.[354][355]
Croatia competed in theEurovision Song Contest as part ofYugoslavia since 1961. The first and only victory Yugoslavia achieved in the competition was accomplished by the Croatian pop bandRiva in 1989. Since its debut at the1993 contest, Croatia won two fourth places at the1996 and1999 contests, and one second place at the2024 contest, marking the country's best result to date as an independent nation.[360]
Croatian traditional cuisine varies from one region to another. Dalmatia and Istria have culinary influences ofItalian and otherMediterranean cuisines which prominently feature various seafood, cooked vegetables and pasta, and condiments such as olive oil and garlic.Austrian,Hungarian,Turkish, andBalkan culinary styles influenced continental cuisine. In that area, meats, freshwater fish, and vegetable dishes are predominant.[373]
There are two distinct wine-producing regions in Croatia. The continental in the northeast of the country, especially Slavonia, produces premium wines, particularly whites. Along the north coast, Istrian and Krk wines are similar to those in neighbouring Italy, while further south in Dalmatia, Mediterranean-style red wines are the norm.[373] Annual production of wine exceeds 72 million litres as of 2017[update].[374] Croatia was almost exclusively a wine-consuming country up until the late 18th century when a more massive beer production and consumption started.[375]
There are 11 restaurants in Croatia with aMichelin star and 89 restaurants bearing some of the Michelin's marks.[376]
Croatia has a long tradition of sports dating back to Roman times, followed by popular medievalknights' tournaments.[377] Modern organized sports began in the late 19th century with the founding of sports associations like Hrvatski Sokol in 1874.[377] By the early 20th century, many sports organizations emerged, including theCroatian Sports Association established in 1909.[378] Croatian sports' development has been closely related to the Olympic movement, withFranjo Bučar playing a key role in promoting sports forCroatian independence.[378] Sport is part of the school curriculum, and many children engage in extracurricular activities.[379] To support sports development, Croatia enacted the National Sport Programme in 2019.[380] Funding for sports comes from the state budget, sponsorship, and membership fees.[381] TheCroatian Olympic Committee, established in 1991, oversees over 80 national sports associations.[382]
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^Težak-Gregl, Tihomila (December 2003)."Prilog poznavanju neolitičkih obrednih predmeta u neolitiku sjeverne Hrvatske" [A Contribution to Understanding Neolithic Ritual Objects in the Northern Croatia Neolithic].Opvscvla Archaeologica Radovi Arheološkog Zavoda (in Croatian).27 (1). University of Zagreb, Faculty of Philosophy, Archaeological Department:43–48.ISSN0473-0992. Retrieved2011-10-15.
^Wilkes, John (1995).The Illyrians. Oxford, UK:Wiley-Blackwell. p. 114.ISBN978-0-631-19807-9. Retrieved2011-10-15.... in the early history of the colony settled in 385 BC on the island Pharos (Hvar) from the Aegean island Paros, famed for its marble. In traditional fashion they accepted the guidance of an oracle, ...
^Wilkes, John (1995).The Illyrians. Oxford, UK:Wiley-Blackwell. p. 115.ISBN978-0-631-19807-9. Retrieved2012-04-03.The third Greek colony known in this central sector of the Dalmatian coast was Issa, on the north side of the island Vis.
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^Benfield, Richard W. (2003)."Croatia". In Quick, Amanda C. (ed.).World Press Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 (2 ed.). Detroit:Gale.ISBN0-7876-5583-X. Retrieved2011-09-13.
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