TheCrimean Khanate,[b] self-defined as theThrone of Crimea and Desht-i Kipchak,[10][c] and in old European historiography and geography known asLittle Tartary,[d] was aCrimean Tatar state existing from 1441 to 1783, the longest-lived of theTurkic khanates that succeeded the empire of theGolden Horde. Established byHacı I Giray in 1441, it was regarded as the direct heir to the Golden Horde and toDesht-i-Kipchak.[11][12]
The Crimean Khans, considering their state as the heir and legal successor of the Golden Horde andDesht-i Kipchak, called themselves khans of "the Great Horde, the Great State and the Throne of the Crimea". The full title of the Crimean khans, used in official documents and correspondence with foreign rulers, varying slightly from document to document during the three centuries of the Khanate's existence, was as follows: "By the Grace and help of the blessed and highest Lord, the great padishah of the Great Horde, and the Great State, and the Throne of the Crimea, and all the Nogai, and the mountain Circassians, and the tats and tavgachs, and The Kipchak steppe and all the Tatars" (Crimean Tatar:Tañrı Tebareke ve Ta'alânıñ rahimi ve inayeti milen Uluğ Orda ve Uluğ Yurtnıñ ve taht-ı Qırım ve barça Noğaynıñ ve tağ ara Çerkaçnıñ ve Tat imilen Tavğaçnıñ ve Deşt-i Qıpçaqnıñ ve barça Tatarnıñ uluğ padişahı,تنڭرى تبرك و تعالينيڭ رحمى و عنايتى ميلان اولوغ اوردا و اولوغ يورتنيڭ و تخت قريم و بارچا نوغاينيڭ و طاغ ارا چركاچنيڭ و تاد يميلان طوغاچنيڭ و دشت قپچاقنيڭ و بارچا تاتارنيڭ اولوغ پادشاهى).[14][15]
According to Oleksa Hayvoronsky, the inhabitants of the Crimean Khanate in Crimean Tatar usually referred to their state as "Qırım yurtu, Crimean Yurt", which can be translated into English as "the country of Crimea" or "Crimean country".[16][17]
English-speaking writers during the 18th and early 19th centuries often called the territory of the Crimean Khanate and of theLesser Nogai HordeLittle Tartary (or subdivided it asCrim Tartary (alsoKrim Tartary) andKuban Tartary).[18] The name "Little Tartary" distinguished the area from (Great)Tartary – those areas of central and northern Asia inhabited byTurkic peoples orTatars.
The Khanate included theCrimean peninsula and the adjacent steppes, mostly corresponding to parts ofSouth Ukraine between theDnieper and theDonets rivers (i.e. including most of present-dayZaporizhzhia Oblast, left-Dnipro parts ofKherson Oblast, besides minor parts of southeasternDnipropetrovsk Oblast and westernDonetsk Oblast). The territory controlled by the Crimean Khanate shifted throughout its existence due to the constant incursions by theCossacks, who had livedalong the Don since the disintegration of the Golden Horde in the 15th century. The London-based cartographerHerman Moll in a map of c. 1729 shows "Little Tartary" as including the Crimean peninsula and the steppe between Dnieper andMius River as far north as the Dnieper bend and the upperTor River (a tributary of theDonets).[19]
The first knownTurkic peoples appeared in Crimea in the 6th century, during the conquest of the Crimea byThe Turkic Kaganate.[20][page needed] In the 11th century,Cumans (Kipchaks) appeared in Crimea; they later became the ruling and state-forming people of the Golden Horde and the Crimean Khanate.[21] In the middle of the 13th century, the northern steppe lands of the Crimea, inhabited mainly byTurkic peoples (Cumans), became the possession of UlusJuchi, known as theGolden Horde or Ulu Ulus. In this era, the role of Turkic peoples increased.[22] Around this time, the local Kipchaks took the name ofTatars (tatarlar).[23][24][25][26]
In the Horde period, the khans of the Golden Horde were the Supreme rulers of the Crimea, but their governors –Emirs – exercised direct control. The first formally recognized ruler in the Crimea is consideredAran-Timur, the nephew ofBatu Khan of the Golden Horde, who received this area fromMengu-Timur, and the first center of the Crimea was the ancient cityQırım (Solhat). This name then gradually spread to the entire Peninsula. The second center of Crimea was the valley adjacent toQırq Yer andBağçasaray.
The multi-ethnic population of Crimea then consisted mainly of those who lived in the steppe and foothills of the Peninsula:Kipchaks (Cumans),Crimean Greeks,Crimean Goths,Alans, andArmenians, who lived mainly in cities and mountain villages. The Crimean nobility was mostly of both Kipchak and Horden origin.[27][28]
Horde rule for the peoples who inhabited the Crimean Peninsula was, in general, painful. The rulers of the Golden Horde repeatedly organized punitive campaigns in the Crimea when the local population refused to pay tribute. An example is the well-known campaign of theNogai Khan in 1299, which resulted in a number of Crimean cities suffering. As in other regions of the Horde, separatist tendencies soon began to manifest themselves in Crimea.
In 1303, in Crimea, the most famous written monument of the Kypchak or Cuman language was created (named inKypchak "tatar tili") – "Codex Cumanicus", which is the oldest memorial in theCrimean Tatar language and of great importance for the history of Kypchak and Oghuz dialects – as directly related to the Kipchaks of theBlack Sea steppes andCrimea.[29][25]
There are legends that, in the 14th century, the Crimea was repeatedly ravaged by the army of theGrand Duchy of Lithuania.Grand Duke of LithuaniaAlgirdas broke the Tatar army in 1363 near the mouth of the Dnieper, and then invaded the Crimea, devastatedChersonesos and seized valuable church objects there. There is a similar legend about his successorVytautas, who in 1397 went on a Crimean campaign toCaffa and again destroyed Chersonesos. Vytautas is also known in Crimean history for giving refuge in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to a significant number of Tatars and Karaites, whose descendants now live inLithuania andBelarus. In 1399 Vytautas, who came to the aid of the Horde KhanTokhtamysh, was defeated on the banks ofthe Vorskla River by Tokhtamysh's rivalTimur-Kutluk, on whose behalf the Horde was ruled by the EmirEdigei, and made peace.[30]
During the reign of Canike Hanım, Tokhtamysh's daughter, in Qırq-Or, she supportedHacı I Giray in the struggle against the descendants ofTokhtamysh,Kichi-Muhammada andSayid Ahmad, who as well as Hacı Giray claimed full power in the Crimea[31] and probably saw him as her heir to the Crimean throne.[32] In the sources of the 16th–18th centuries, the opinion according to which the separation of the Crimean Tatar state was raised to Tokhtamysh, and Canike was the most important figure in this process, completely prevailed.[33]
The Crimean Khanate originated in the early 15th century when certain clans of theGolden Horde Empire ceased their nomadic life in theDesht-i Kipchak (KypchakSteppes of today'sUkraine and southern Russia) and decided to make Crimea theiryurt (homeland). At that time, the Golden Horde of theMongol Empire had governed the Crimean peninsula as anulus since 1239, with its capital at Qirim (Staryi Krym). The local separatists invited aGenghisid contender for the Golden Horde throne,Hacı Giray, to become theirkhan. Hacı Giray accepted their invitation and travelled from exile inLithuania. He warred for independence against the Horde from 1420 to 1441, in the end achieving success. But Hacı Giray then had to fight off internal rivals before he could ascend the throne of the khanate in 1449, after which he moved its capital toQırq Yer (today part ofBahçeseray).[34] The khanate included theCrimean Peninsula (except the south and southwest coast and ports, controlled by theRepublic of Genoa &Trebizond Empire) as well as the adjacent steppe.
The sons of Hacı I Giray contended against each other to succeed him. TheOttomans intervened and installed one of the sons,Meñli I Giray, on the throne. Menli I Giray, took the imperial title "Sovereign of Two Continents and Khan of Khans of Two Seas."[35]
In 1475 the Ottoman forces, under the command ofGedik Ahmet Pasha, conquered the GreekPrincipality of Theodoro and the Genoese colonies atCembalo,Soldaia, andCaffa (modern Feodosiya). Thenceforth the khanate was a protectorate of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman sultan enjoyed veto power over the selection of new Crimean khans. The Empire annexed the Crimean coast but recognized the legitimacy of the khanate rule of the steppes, as the khans were descendants ofGenghis Khan.
In 1475, the Ottomans imprisoned Meñli I Giray for three years for resisting the invasion. After returning from captivity inConstantinople, he accepted thesuzerainty of the Ottoman Empire. Nevertheless, Ottoman sultans treated the khans more as allies than subjects.[36] The khans continued to have a foreign policy independent from the Ottomans in the steppes of Little Tartary. The khans continued to mint coins and use their names in Friday prayers, two important signs of sovereignty. They did not pay tribute to the Ottoman Empire; instead the Ottomans paid them in return for their services of providing skilled outriders and frontline cavalry in their campaigns.[37] Later on, Crimea lost power in this relationship as the result of a crisis in 1523, during the reign of Meñli's successor,Mehmed I Giray. He died that year and beginning with his successor, from 1524 on, Crimean khans were appointed by the Sultan.[38]The alliance of the Crimean Tatars and the Ottomans was comparable to thePolish–Lithuanian union in its importance and durability.[clarification needed] The Crimean cavalry became indispensable for the Ottomans' campaigns againstPoland,Hungary, andPersia.[39]
In 1502,Meñli I Giray defeated the last khan of theGreat Horde, which put an end to the Horde's claims on Crimea. The Khanate initially chose as its capital Salaçıq near the Qırq Yer fortress. Later, the capital was moved a short distance toBahçeseray, founded in 1532 bySahib I Giray. Both Salaçıq and the Qırq Yer fortress today are part of the expanded city of Bahçeseray.
The slave trade was the backbone of the economy of the Crimean Khanate.[40][41]
The Crimeans frequently mounted raids into theDanubian principalities,Poland–Lithuania, andMuscovy to enslave people whom they could capture; for each captive, the khan received a fixed share (savğa) of 10% or 20%. These campaigns by Crimean forces were eithersefers ("sojourns"), officially declared military operations led by the khans themselves, orçapuls ("despoiling"), raids undertaken by groups of noblemen, sometimes illegally because they contravened treaties concluded by the khans with neighbouring rulers.
For a long time, until the early 18th century, the khanate maintained a massiveslave trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East, exporting about 2 million slaves from Russia and Poland–Lithuania over the period 1500–1700, mainly into Ottoman Empire,[42]Caffa, an Ottoman city on Crimean peninsula (and thus not part of the Khanate), was one of the best known and significant trading ports and slave markets.[43][44] In 1769, a last major Tatar raid resulted in the capture of 20,000 Russian and Ruthenian slaves.[45]
Fisher estimates that in the sixteenth century the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth lost around 20,000 individuals a year and that from 1474 to 1694, as many as a million Commonwealth citizens were carried off into Crimean slavery.[46]
Early modern sources are full of descriptions of sufferings of Christian slaves captured by the Crimean Tatars in the course of their raids:
It seems that the position and everyday conditions of a slave depended largely on his/her owner. Some slaves indeed could spend the rest of their days doing exhausting labor: as the Crimeanvizir (minister) Sefer Gazi Aga mentions in one of his letters, the slaves were often "a plough and a scythe" of their owners. Most terrible, perhaps, was the fate of those who becamegalley-slaves, whose sufferings were poeticized in many Ukrainiandumas (songs). ... Both female and male slaves were often used for sexual purposes.[45]
Alliances and conflicts with Poland and Zaporozhian Cossacks
The Crimeans had a complex relationship withZaporozhian Cossacks who lived to the north of the khanate in modern Ukraine. The Cossacks provided a measure of protection against Tatar raids for Poland–Lithuania and received subsidies for their service. They also raided Crimean and Ottoman possessions in the region. At times Crimean Khanate made alliances with thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and theZaporizhian Sich. The assistance ofİslâm III Giray during theKhmelnytsky Uprising in 1648 contributed greatly to the initial momentum of military successes for the Cossacks.[47] The relationship with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was also exclusive, as it was the home dynasty of the Girays, who sought sanctuary in Lithuania in the 15th century before establishing themselves on the Crimean peninsula.[48]
The Crimean Khanate in about 1600. Note that the areas marked Poland and Muscovy were claimed rather than administered and were thinly populated.
In the middle of the 16th century, the Crimean Khanate asserted a claim to be the successor to the Golden Horde, which entailed asserting the right of rule over the Tatar khanates of the Caspian-Volga region, particularly theKazan Khanate andAstrakhan Khanate. This claim pitted it againstMuscovy for dominance in the region. A successful campaign byDevlet I Giray upon the Russian capital in 1571 culminated in theburning of Moscow, and he thereby gained the sobriquet, That Alğan (seizer of the throne).[49] The following year, however, the Crimean Khanate lost access to the Volga once and for all due to its catastrophic defeat in theBattle of Molodi.
Don Cossacks reached lower Don,Donets andAzov by the 1580s and thus became the north-eastern neighbours of the khanate. They attracted peasants, serfs and gentry fleeing internal conflicts, over-population and intensifying exploitation. Just as Zaporozhians protected the southern borders of the Commonwealth, Don Cossacks protected Muscovy and themselves attacked the khanate and Ottoman fortresses.[50][51]
At the beginning of the 17th century, the ancestors of theKalmyks, theOirat Mongols, migrated from the steppes of Central Asia to the Lower Volga region. They reached the Volga about 1630. That land, however, was not uncontested pasture, but rather the homeland of theNogai Horde. Large groups of Nogais fled southeast to the northern Caucasian plain and west to the Black Sea steppe, lands claimed by the Crimean Khanate.
TheNogais north of the Black Sea were nominally subject to the Crimean Khanate. They were divided into the following groups:Budjak (from theDanube to theDniester),Yedisan (from the Dniester to theBug), Jamboyluk (Bug toCrimea), Yedickul (north of Crimea) andKuban.[52]
Under the influence of theCrimean Tatars and of theOttoman Empire, large numbers ofCircassians converted toIslam. Circassian mercenaries and recruits played an important role in the khan's armies, khans often married Circassian women and it was a custom for young Crimean princes to spend time in Circassia training in the art of warfare.[53] Several conflicts occurred between Circassians and Crimean Tatars in the 18th century, with the former defeating an army of KhanKaplan Giray and Ottoman auxiliaries in thebattle of Kanzhal.[54]
TheTurkish traveler writerEvliya Çelebi mentions the impact ofCossack raids fromAzak upon the territories of the Crimean Khanate. These raids ruined trade routes and severely depopulated many important regions. By the time Evliya Çelebi had arrived almost all the towns he visited were affected by the Cossack raids. In fact, the only place Evliya Çelebi considered safe from the Cossacks was theOttoman fortress atArabat.[55]
Map of the sparsely populatedWild Fields in the 17th century
The decline of the Crimean Khanate was a consequence of the weakening of the Ottoman Empire and a change in Eastern Europe's balance of power favouring its neighbours. Crimean Tatars often returned from Ottoman campaigns without loot, and Ottoman subsidies were less likely for unsuccessful campaigns. Without sufficient guns, the Tatar cavalry suffered a significant loss against European and Russian armies with modern equipment. By the late 17th century,Russia became too strong for Crimean Khan to pillage and theTreaty of Karlowitz (1699) outlawed further raids. The era of great slave raids in Russia and Ukraine was over, although brigands and Nogay raiders continued their attacks, and consequently Russian hatred of the Crimean Khanate did not decrease. These politico-economic losses led in turn to erosion of the khan's support among noble clans, and internal conflicts for power ensued. The Nogays, who provided a significant portion of the Crimean military forces, also took back their support from the khans towards the end of the empire.
In the first half of the 17th century,Kalmyks formed theKalmyk Khanate in the Lower Volga and underAyuka Khan conducted many military expeditions against the Crimean Khanate andNogays. By becoming an important ally and later part of the Russian Empire and taking an oath to protect its southeastern borders, the Kalmyk Khanate took an active part in all Russian war campaigns in the 17th and 18th centuries, providing up to 40,000 fully equipped horsemen.
Little Tartary (Crimean Khanate) borders in 1715 (Herman Moll)
The rule of the last Crimean khanŞahin Giray was marked with increasing Russian influence and outbursts of violence from the khan administration towards internal opposition. On 8 April 1783, in violation of the treaty (after some parts of treaty had been already violated by Crimeans and Ottomans), Catherine II intervened in the civil war, de facto annexing the whole peninsula as theTaurida Oblast. In 1787, Şahin Giray took refuge in the Ottoman Empire and was eventually executed, onRhodes, by the Ottoman authorities for betrayal.[56] The royalGiray family survives to this day.
All Khans were from theGiray clan, which traced its right to rule to its descent fromGenghis Khan. According to the tradition of the steppes, the ruler was legitimate only if he was of Genghisid royal descent (i.e. "ak süyek"). Although the Giray dynasty was the symbol of government, the khan actually governed with the participation ofQaraçıBeys, the leaders of the noble clans such as Şirin, Barın, Arğın, Qıpçaq, and in the later period, Mansuroğlu and Sicavut. After the collapse of theAstrakhan Khanate in 1556, an important element of the Crimean Khanate were theNogays, most of whom transferred their allegiance from Astrakhan to Crimea.Circassians (Atteghei) andCossacks also occasionally played roles in Crimean politics, alternating their allegiance between the khan and the beys.TheNogay pastoral nomads north of theBlack Sea were nominally subject to the Crimean Khan. They were divided into the following groups:Budjak (from the Danube to the Dniester),Yedisan (from the Dniester to the Bug),Cemboylıq [crh] (Bug to Crimea), Yedickul (north of Crimea) andKuban.
Khan Qirim Girai, is known to have authorized the construction of many landmarks inBakhchysarai and the Crimean Khanate.
Internally, the khanate territory was divided among the beys, and beneath the beys weremirzas from noble families. The relationship of peasants or herdsmen to their mirzas was notfeudal. They were free and theIslamic law protected them from losing their rights. Apportioned by village, the land was worked in common and taxes were assigned to the whole village. The tax was one tenth of an agricultural product, one twentieth of a herd animal, and a variable amount of unpaid labor. During the reforms by the last khanŞahin Giray, the internal structure was changed following the Turkish pattern: the nobles' landholdings were proclaimed the domain of the khan and reorganized intoqadılıqs (provinces governed by representatives of the khan).
Crimean law was based on Tatar law, Islamic law, and, in limited matters,Ottoman law. The leader of the Muslim establishment was themufti, who was selected from among the local Muslim clergy. His major duty was neither judicial nor theological, but financial. The mufti's administration controlled all of thevakif lands and their enormous revenues. Another Muslim official, appointed not by the clergy but the Ottoman sultan, was thekadıasker, the overseer of the khanate's judicial districts, each under jurisdiction of akadi. In theory, kadis answered to thekadiaskers, but in practice they answered to the clan leaders and the khan. The kadis determined the day to day legal behavior of Muslims in the khanate.
"Crimean Tatars travelling on the plains" byCarlo Bossoli
Substantial non-Muslim minorities –Greeks,Armenians,Crimean Goths,Adyghe (Circassians),Venetians,Genoese,Crimean Karaites andQırımçaq Jews – lived principally in the cities, mostly in separate districts or suburbs. Under themillet system, they had their own religious and judicial institutions. They were subject to extra taxes in exchange for exemption from military service, living like Crimean Tatars and speaking dialects of Crimean Tatar.[57]Mikhail Kizilov writes: "According to Marcin Broniewski (1578), the Tatars seldom cultivated the soil themselves, with most of their land tilled by the Polish, Ruthenian, Russian, and Walachian (Moldavian) slaves."[45]
The Jewish population was concentrated inÇufut Kale ('Jewish Fortress'), a separate town near Bahçeseray that was the Khan's original capital. As with other minorities, they spoke a Turkic language. Crimean law granted them special financial and political rights as a reward, according to local folklore, for historic services rendered to anuluhane (first wife of a Khan). The capitation tax on Jews in Crimea was levied by the office of the uluhane in Bahçeseray.[58] Much like the Christian population of Crimea, the Jews were actively involved in the slave trade. Both Christians and Jews also often redeemed Christian and Jewish captives of Tatar raids in Eastern Europe.[45]
Thenomadic part of the Crimean Tatars and all the Nogays were cattle breeders. Crimea had important trading ports where the goods arrived via theSilk Road were exported to the Ottoman Empire and Europe. Crimean Khanate had many large cities such as the capital Bahçeseray,Kezlev (Yevpatoria),Qarasu Bazar (Market on black water) andAqmescit (White-mosque) having numeroushans (caravansarais and merchant quarters), tanners, and mills. Many monuments constructed under the Crimean Khanate were destroyed or left in ruins after the Russian invasion.[59] Mosques, in particular were demolished or remade into Orthodox churches.[59] The settled Crimean Tatars were engaged in trade, agriculture, and artisanry. Crimea was a center of wine, tobacco, and fruit cultivation. Bahçeseraykilims (oriental rugs) were exported toPoland, and knives made by Crimean Tatar artisans were deemed the best by the Caucasian tribes. Crimea was also renowned for manufacture of silk and honey.
Theslave trade (15th–17th century) of captured Ukrainians and Russians was one of the major sources of income for Crimean Tartar and Nogai nobility. In this process, known asharvesting the steppe, raiding parties would go out and capture, and then enslave the local Christian peasants living in the countryside.[60] In spite of the dangers, Polish and Russianserfs were attracted to the freedom offered by the empty steppes ofUkraine. The slave raids entered Russian and Cossack folklore and manydumy were written elegising the victims' fates. This contributed to a hatred for the Khanate that transcended political or military concerns. But in fact, there were always small raids committed by both Tatars andCossacks, in both directions.[61]The last recorded majorCrimean raid, before those in theRusso-Turkish War (1768–1774) took place during the reign ofPeter I (1682–1725).[61]
TheSelim II Giray fountain, built in 1747, is considered one of the masterpieces of Crimean Khanate's hydraulic engineering designs and is still marveled in modern times. It consists of smallceramic pipes, boxed in an underground stone tunnel, stretching back to the spring source more than 20 metres (66 feet) away. It was one of the finest sources of water inBakhchisaray.
One of the notable constructors of Crimean art and architecture wasQırım Giray, who in 1764 commissioned the fountain master Omer the Persian to construct the Bakhchisaray Fountain. The Bakhchisaray Fountain orFountain of Tears is a real case of life imitating art. The fountain is known as the embodiment of love of one of the last Crimean Khans, Khan Qırım Giray for his young wife, and his grief after her early death. The Khan was said to have fallen in love with aPolish girl in hisharem. Despite his battle-hardened harshness, he was grievous and wept when she died, astonishing all those who knew him. He commissioned a marble fountain to be made, so that the rock would weep, like him, forever.[62]
The peninsula itself was divided by the khan's family and severalbeys. An estate controlled by a bey was called abeylik. Beys in the khanate were as important as the PolishMagnats. Directly to the khan belongedCufut-Qale,Bakhchisaray, andStaryi Krym (Eski Qirim). The khan also possessed all the salt lakes and the villages around them, as well as the woods around the riversAlma, Kacha, andSalgir. Part of his own estate included the wastelands with their newly created settlements.
Part of the main khan's estates were the lands of theKalga who was next in the line of succession of the khan's family. He usually administered the eastern portion of the peninsula. The Kalga was also Chief Commander of the Crimean Army in the absence of the Khan. The next administrative position, calledNureddin, was also assigned to the khan's family. He administered the western region of the peninsula. There also was a specifically assigned position for the khan's mother or sister —Ana-beim — which was similar to the Ottomans'valide sultan. The senior wife of the Khan carried a rank ofUlu-beim and was next in importance to the Nureddin.
By the end of the khanate regional offices of thekaimakans, who administered smaller regions of the Crimean Khanate, were created.
Or Qapı (Perekop) had special status. The fortress was controlled either directly by the khan's family or by the family of Shirin.
^Темушев 2021, p. 1026, see legend of the map (red dash line).
^Колодзєйчик Д.: Крымское ханство как фактор стабилизации на геополитической карте Восточной Европы // Украина и соседние государства в XVII веке. Материалы международной конференции. СПб., 2004. С. 83–89
^Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslâm ansiklopedisi (in Turkish). Vol. 14. 1996. p. 77.
^"Chaghatay Language and Literature".Iranica.Ebn Mohannā (Jamāl-al-Dīn, fl. early 8th/14th century, probably in Khorasan), for instance, characterized it as the purest of all Turkish languages (Doerfer, 1976, p. 243), and the khans of the Golden Horde (Radloff, 1870; Kurat; Bodrogligeti, 1962) and of the Crimea (Kurat), as well as the Kazan Tatars (Akhmetgaleeva; Yusupov), wrote in Chaghatay much of the time.
^Documents of the Crimean khanate from the collection of Huseyn Feyzkhanov / comp. and the transliteration. R. R. Abdujalilov; scientific. edited by I. Mingaleev. – Simferopol: LLC "Konstanta". - 2017. – 816 p.ISBN978-5-906952-38-7
^Sagit Faizov. Letters of khans Islam Giray III and Muhammad Giray IV to Tsar Alexey Mikhailovich and King Jan Kazimir, 1654–1658: Crimean Tatar diplomacy in polit. post-Pereyaslav context. time – Moscow: Humanitarii, 2003. – 166 p.ISBN5-89221-075-8
^Gaivoronsky Oleksa. The Country Of Crimea. Essays on the monuments of the history of the Crimean Khanate. Simferopol: FL ablaeva N. F., 2016–336 p.ISBN978-5-600-01505-0
^Oleksa Gaivoronsky. Lords of two Continents, volume 1, Kyiv-Bakhchysarai, 2007ISBN978-966-96917-1-2
^Edmund Spencer,Travels in Circassia, Krim-Tartary &c: Including a Steam Voyage Down the Danube from Vienna to Constantinople, and Round the Black Sea, Henry Colburn, 1837.
^To His Most Serene and August Majesty Peter Alexovitz Absolute Lord of Russia &c. This map of Moscovy, Poland, Little Tartary, and ye Black Sea &c. is most Humbly Dedicated by H. Moll Geographer (raremaps.com). The map shows Little Tartary as reaching the left bank of the Dnipro, and as including theKalmius but not the Mius, to the north reaching as far as the Tor (Torets) basin, somewhat south ofIzium. Other geographers (but not Moll) sometimes included in "Lesser Tartary"[according to whom?] the territory of theLesser Nogai Horde inKuban, east of the Sea of Azov (in Moll's map labelled separately asKoeban Tartary).
^The Crimea. Great historical guide. Alexander Andreev publishing house Liters 2014
^R. I. Kurteev, K. K. Choghoshvili. The ethnic term "Tatars" and the ethnic group "Crimean Tatars". – Through the ages: the peoples of the Crimea. Issue 1 \ Ed. N. Nikolaenko-Simferopol: Academy of Humanities, 1995
^Peter B. Brown, "Russian Serfdom's Demise and Russia's Conquest of the Crimean Khanate and the Northern Black Sea Littoral: Was There a Link?", inEurasian Slavery, Ransom and Abolition in World History, 1200–1860(Routledge, 2015), p. 346: "The slave trade was the backbone of the Crimean khanate's economy."
^J. Otto Pohl,Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 1937–1949 (Greenwood, 1999), p. 110: "The slave trade formed the backbone of the Crimean Khanate's the role of the slave trade in the economy of the Crimean Khanate is a tragic example of Evil.<The historical fate of the Crimean TatarsArchived 2019-10-20 at theWayback Machine – Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor Valery Vozgrin, 1992, Moscow(in Russian)
^According to Tsutsiev (Atlas of the Ethno-Political History of the Caucasus, 2014, Map 4 for 1774), many of these tribes existed north of the Caucasus. From west to east he lists 'Kipchak', Yedishkul, Jambulak, Navruz, Mansur(sic), and Beshtau Nogay. North of Jambulak-Beshtau were Yedisans and north of these names are omitted. East of the Beshtau Nogay were Turkmen and then the Kara-Nogai in the present Nogai location west of the Caspian.
^Williams, Brian Glyn (2001).The Crimean Tatars: The Diaspora Experience and the Forging of a Nation. Brill. p. 198.ISBN978-90-04-12122-5.
^Kármán, Gábor, ed. (2020).Tributaries and Peripheries of the Ottoman Empire. Brill.ISBN978-90-04-43060-0.
Темушев, С. Н. (2021).История крымских татар в пяти томах (Том III)(PDF). Vol. 1. Казань: Institute of History named after Sh. Marjani of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tatarstan.
Ivanics, Mária (2007). "Enslavement, Slave Labour, and the Treatment of Captives in the Crimean Khanate". In Dávid, Géza; Pál Fodor (eds.).Ransom Slavery along the Ottoman Borders (Early Fifteenth-Early Eighteenth Centuries). Leiden: Brill. pp. 193–219.
1These are traditional areas of settlement; the Turkic group has been living in the listed country/region for centuries and should not be confused with modern diasporas. 2State with limited international recognition.
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![Coat of arms (17th–18th century)[1] of Crimean Khanate](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aCoat_of_arms_of_Crimean_Khanate.svg)
![The limit of expansion of the Crimean Khanate (Throne of Crimea and Desht-i Kipchak) on the lands of the Ulus of Jochi as of 1523.[2]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMap_of_the_Crimean_Khanate_at_its_maximum_extent.svg)
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