Mauritius,[a] officially theRepublic of Mauritius,[b] is anisland country in theIndian Ocean, about 2,000 kilometres (1,100 nautical miles) off the southeastern coast ofEast Africa, east ofMadagascar. It includes the main island (also called Mauritius), as well asRodrigues,Agaléga, andSt. Brandon (Cargados Carajos shoals).[12][13] The islands of Mauritius and Rodrigues, along with nearbyRéunion (aFrench overseas department), are part of theMascarene Islands. The main island of Mauritius, where the population is concentrated, hosts the capital and largest city,Port Louis. The country spans 2,040 square kilometres (790 sq mi) and has anexclusive economic zone covering approximately 2,000,000 square kilometres (580,000 square nautical miles).[14][15]
The 1502 PortugueseCantino planisphere has led some historians to speculate thatArab sailors were the first to discover the uninhabited island around 975, naming itDina Arobi.[16][17] CalledIlha do Cirne orIlha do Cerne on earlyPortuguese maps, the island was visited by Portuguese sailors in 1507.[18] ADutch fleet, under the command of Admiral Van Warwyck, landed at what is now theGrand Port District and took possession of the island in 1598, renaming it afterMaurice, Prince of Orange. Short-livedDutch attempts at permanent settlement took place over a century aimed at exploiting the localebony forests, establishingsugar andarrack production using cane plant cuttings fromJava together with over three hundredMalagasy slaves, all in vain.[19] French colonisation began in 1715, the island renamed "Isle de France". In 1810, the United Kingdomseized the island and under theTreaty of Paris, France ceded Mauritius and its dependencies to the United Kingdom. The British colony of Mauritius now included Rodrigues, Agaléga, St. Brandon, theChagos Archipelago, and, until 1906, theSeychelles.[12][13] Mauritius and France dispute sovereignty over the island ofTromelin, the treaty failing to mention it specifically.[20] Mauritius became theBritish Empire's main sugar-producing colony and remained a primarily sugar-dominated plantation-based colony until independence, in 1968.[21] In 1992, the country abolished the monarchy, replacing it with the president.
Along with the other Mascarene Islands, Mauritius is known for itsbiodiverse flora and fauna with many unique species endemic to the country. The main island was the only known home of thedodo, which, along with several other avian species, became extinct soon after human settlement. Otherendemic animals, such as theecho parakeet, theMauritius kestrel and thepink pigeon, have survived and are subject to intensive and successful ongoing conservation efforts.[36]
The first historical evidence of the existence of the island now known as Mauritius is on a 1502 map called theCantino planisphere which was smuggled out of Portugal, for the Duke of Ferrara, by the Italian 'spy' Alberto Cantino. On this purloined copy of a Portuguese map, Mauritius bore the nameDina Arobi orDina Arobin (likelyArabic:دنية عروبيDaniyah 'Arūbi or corruption ofدبية عروبيDībah 'Arūbi).[37][38][dubious –discuss] In 1507, Portuguese sailors visited the uninhabited island after being blown off course from their route to India via the Mozambique channel. The island appears with thePortuguese namesCirne (a typographical error where the 's' of the Portuguese 'Cisne' (Swan) became an 'r') orDo-Cerne (typo of 'do Cisne' meaning 'of' or 'belonging to the Swan') on early Portuguese maps, almost certainly from the name of a ship calledCisne which was captained byDiogo Fernandes Pereira in the 1507 expedition which discovered Mauritius and Rodrigues which he calledilha de Diogo Fernandes but poorly transcribed by non-Portuguese speakers asDomigo Friz orDomingo Frias.[39]Diogo Fernandes Pereira may have been the first European to sail east of Madagascar island ('outer route' to the East Indies) rather than through the perceived safer route through the Mozambique channel, following the East African shore line.
In 1598, a Dutch squadron under Admiral Wybrand van Warwyck landed atGrand Port and named the islandMauritius, in honour ofPrince Maurice van Nassau,stadtholder of theDutch Republic. Later the island became a French colony and was renamedIsle de France. On 3 December 1810, the French surrendered the island to the United Kingdom during theNapoleonic Wars. Under British rule, the island's name reverted toMauritius/məˈrɪʃəs/ⓘ. Mauritius is also commonly known asMaurice (pronounced[mɔʁis]) andÎle Maurice in French, as well asMoris (pronounced[moʁis]) inMauritian Creole.[40]
The island of Mauritius was uninhabited before its first recorded visit by Arab sailors in the end of the 10th century. Its name Dina Arobi has been associated with Arab sailors who first discovered the island.
TheTreaty of Tordesillas, designed to prevent conflict between Portugal and Spain, gave theKingdom of Portugal the right to colonise this part of the world. In 1507, Portuguese sailors came to the uninhabited island and established a visiting base.Diogo Fernandes Pereira, a Portuguese navigator, was the first European known to land in Mauritius. He named the island "Ilha do Cisne" ("Island of the Swan"). The Portuguese did not stay long as they were not interested in these islands.[41] TheMascarene Islands were named afterPedro Mascarenhas,Viceroy of Portuguese India, after his visit to the islands in 1512.Rodrigues Island was named afterPortuguese explorerDiogo Rodrigues, who first came upon the island in 1528.
Dutch activities on Mauritius, as well as the first published depiction of adodo bird (2), 1601
In 1598, a Dutch squadron under Admiral Wybrand Van Warwyck landed atGrand Port and named the island "Mauritius" afterPrince Maurice of Nassau (Dutch:Maurits van Nassau) of theDutch Republic. The Dutch inhabited the island in 1638, from which they exploitedebony trees and introducedsugar cane, domestic animals and deer. It was from here that Dutch navigatorAbel Tasman set out to seek the Great Southern Land, mapping parts ofTasmania, New Zealand andNew Guinea. The first Dutch settlement lasted 20 years. In 1639, the Dutch East India Company brought enslaved Malagasy to cut down ebony trees and to work in the new tobacco and sugar cane plantations.[42] Several attempts to establish a colony permanently were subsequently made, but the settlements never developed enough to produce dividends, causing the Dutch to abandon Mauritius in 1710.[41][43] A 1755 article in the EnglishLeeds Intelligencer claims that the island was abandoned due to the large number oflong tailed macaque monkeys "which destroyed everything in it," and that it was also known at the time as theIsland of Monkeys.[44] Portuguese sailors had brought these monkeys to the island from their native habitat in Southeast Asia, prior to Dutch rule.[45]
France, which already controlled neighbouring Île Bourbon (nowRéunion), took control of Mauritius in 1715 and renamed itIsle de France. In 1723, theCode Noir was established to regulate slavery; it categorised one group of human beings as "goods", allowing the owner of these "goods" to be able to obtain insurance money and compensation in case of loss of his "goods".[46] The 1735 arrival of French governorBertrand-François Mahé de La Bourdonnais coincided with the development of a prosperous economy based on sugar production. Mahé de La Bourdonnais establishedPort Louis as a naval base and a shipbuilding centre.[41] Under his governorship, numerous buildings were erected, a number of which are still standing. These include part of Government House, the Château de Mon Plaisir, and the Line Barracks, the headquarters of thepolice force. The island was under the administration of theFrench East India Company, which maintained its presence until 1767.[41] During the French rule, slaves were brought from parts of Africa such as Mozambiqueand Zanzibar.[47] As a result, the island's population rose dramatically from 15,000 to 49,000 within thirty years. Slave traders fromMadagascar—Sakalava or Arabs—bought slaves from slavers in the ArabSwahili coast orPortuguese Mozambique and stopped atSeychelles for supplies before shipping the slaves to the slave markets of Mauritius, Réunion and India.[48] Of the 80,000 slaves imported to Réunion and Mauritius between 1769 and 1793, 45% was provided by slave traders of theSakalava people in North West Madagascar, who raided East Africa andthe Comoros for slaves, and the rest was provided by Arab slave traders who bought slaves fromPortuguese Mozambique and transported them to Réunion via Madagascar.[49]During the late eighteenth century, African slaves accounted for around 80 percent of the island's population, and by the early nineteenth century there were 60,000 slaves on the island.[42] In early 1729, Indians fromPondicherry, India, arrived in Mauritius aboard the vesselLa Sirène. Work contracts for these craftsmen were signed in 1734 at the time when they acquired their freedom.[50]
TheBattle of Grand Port between French and British naval forces, 20–27 August 1810
From 1767 to 1810, except for a brief period during theFrench Revolution when the inhabitants set up a government virtually independent of France, the island was controlled by officials appointed by the French government.Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre lived on the island from 1768 to 1771, then went back to France, where he wrotePaul et Virginie, a love story that made theIsle de France famous wherever the French language was spoken. In 1796 the settlers broke away from French control when the government in Paris attempted to abolish slavery.[51] Two famous French governors were the Vicomte de Souillac (who constructed the Chaussée in Port Louis[52] and encouraged farmers to settle in the district of Savanne) andAntoine Bruni d'Entrecasteaux (who saw to it that the French in the Indian Ocean should have their headquarters in Mauritius instead ofPondicherry in India).[53]Charles Mathieu Isidore Decaen was a successful general in theFrench Revolutionary Wars and, in some ways, a rival ofNapoléon I. He ruled asGovernor of Isle de France and Réunion from 1803 to 1810. British navalcartographer and explorerMatthew Flinders was arrested and detained by General Decaen on the island from 1803 to 1810,[54][55] in contravention of an order from Napoléon. During theNapoleonic Wars, Mauritius became a base from whichFrench corsairs organised successful raids on British commercial ships. The raids continued until 1810, when aRoyal Navy expedition led byCommodoreJosias Rowley,R.N., anAnglo-Irisharistocrat, was sent to capture the island. Despite winning theBattle of Grand Port against the British, theFrench could not prevent the British from landing atCap Malheureux three months later. They formally surrendered the island on the fifth day of the invasion, 3 December 1810,[53] on terms allowing settlers to keep their land and property and to use the French language and law of France in criminal and civil matters. Under British rule, the island's name reverted to Mauritius.[41]
The British administration, which began withSir Robert Farquhar asits first governor, oversaw rapid social and economic changes. However, it was tainted by theRatsitatane episode. Ratsitatane, nephew of King Radama ofMadagascar, was brought to Mauritius as a political prisoner. He managed to escape from prison and plotted a rebellion that would free the island's slaves. He was betrayed by his associate Laizaf and was caught by a group of militiamen andsummarily executed.[56][57]
In 1832, d'Épinay launched the first Mauritian newspaper (Le Cernéen), which was not controlled by the government. In the same year, there was a move by theprocureur-general to abolish slavery without compensation to the slave owners. This gave rise to discontent, and, to check an eventual rebellion, the government ordered all the inhabitants to surrender their arms. Furthermore, a stone fortress, Fort Adelaide, was built on a hill (now known as the Citadel hill) in the centre of Port Louis to quell any uprising.[52] Slavery was gradually abolished over several years after 1833, and the planters ultimately received two millionpounds sterling in compensation for the loss of their slaves, who had been imported from Africa andMadagascar during the French occupation.[58][59] Theabolition of slavery had important effects on Mauritius's society, economy and population. The planters brought a large number ofindentured labourers from India to work in the sugar cane fields. Between 1834 and 1921, around half a million indentured labourers were present on the island. They worked on sugar estates, factories, in transport and on construction sites. Additionally, the British brought 8,740 Indian soldiers to the island.[41]Aapravasi Ghat, in the bay atPort Louis and now aUNESCO site, was the first British colony to serve as a major reception centre forindentured servants. The labourers brought from India were not always fairly treated, and a Frenchman of German origin, Adolphe de Plevitz, made himself the unofficial protector of these immigrants. In 1871 he helped them to write a petition that was sent toGovernor Gordon. A commission was appointed and recommended several measures that would affect the lives of Indian labourers during the next fifty years.[53]
In 1885,a new constitution was introduced. It was referred to asCens Démocratique and it incorporated some of the principles advocated by one of the Creole leaders, Onésipho Beaugeard. It created elected positions in the Legislative Council – although the franchise was restricted mainly to the white French and fair-skinned Indian elite who owned real estate. In 1886, GovernorJohn Pope Hennessy nominatedGnanadicarayen Arlanda as the first everIndo-Mauritian member of the ruling council – despite the sugar oligarchy's preference for rival Indo-Mauritian Emile Sandapa. Arlanda served until 1891.[60] In 1903, motorcars were introduced in Mauritius, and in 1910, the first taxis came into service. The electrification of Port Louis took place in 1909, and in the same decade the Mauritius Hydro Electric Company of theAtchia Brothers was authorised to provide power to the towns of upperPlaines Wilhems.
The 1910s were a period of political agitation. The rising middle class (made up of doctors, lawyers, and teachers) began to challenge the political power of the sugar cane landowners.Eugène Laurent, mayor of Port Louis, was the leader of this new group; his party,Action Libérale, demanded that more people should be allowed to vote in the elections. Action Libérale was opposed by the Parti de l'Ordre, led by Henri Leclézio, the most influential of the sugar magnates.[53] In 1911, there were riots in Port Louis due to a false rumour that Laurent had been murdered by the oligarchs in Curepipe. This became known as the1911 Curepipe riots. Shops and offices were damaged in the capital, and one person was killed.[61] In the same year, 1911, the first public cinema shows took place in Curepipe, and, in the same town, a stone building was erected to house the Royal College.[61] In 1912, a wider telephone network came into service, used by the government, business firms, and a few private households.
World War I broke out in August 1914. Many Mauritians volunteered to fight in Europe against the Germans and inMesopotamia against the Turks. But the war affected Mauritius much less than the wars of the eighteenth century. In fact, the 1914–1918 war was a period of great prosperity, due to a boom in sugar prices. In 1919, the Mauritius Sugar Syndicate came into being, which included 70% of all sugar producers.[62] The 1920s saw the rise of a "retrocessionism" movement, which favoured the retrocession of Mauritius to France. The movement rapidly collapsed because none of the candidates who wanted Mauritius to be given back to France were elected in the 1921 elections. In the post-war recession, there was a sharp drop in sugar prices. Many sugar estates closed down, marking the end of an era for the sugar magnates who had not only controlled the economy but also the political life of the country.From the end of nominated Arlanda's term in 1891, until 1926, there had been no Indo-Mauritian representation in the Legislative Council. However, at the 1926 elections, Dunputh Lallah and Rajcoomar Gujadhur became the firstIndo-Mauritians to be elected to the Legislative Council. At Grand Port, Lallah won over rivals Fernand Louis Morel and Gaston Gebert; at Flacq, Gujadhur defeated Pierre Montocchio.[63] 1936 saw the birth of theLabour Party, launched byMaurice Curé.Emmanuel Anquetil rallied the urban workers while Pandit Sahadeo concentrated on the rural working class.[64] TheUba riots of 1937 resulted in reforms by the local British government that improved labour conditions and led to the un-banning of labour unions.[65][66] Labour Day was celebrated for the first time in 1938. More than 30,000 workers sacrificed a day's wage and came from all over the island to attend a giant meeting at the Champ de Mars.[67] Following the dockers' strikes, trade unionistEmmanuel Anquetil was deported to Rodrigues,Maurice Curé and Pandit Sahadeo were placed under house arrest, whilst numerous strikers were jailed. Governor SirBede Clifford assisted Mr Jules Leclezio of the Mauritius Sugar Syndicate to counter the effects of the strike by using alternative workers known as 'black legs'.[68]At the outbreak ofWorld War II in 1939, many Mauritians volunteered to serve under the British flag in Africa and the Near East, fighting against the German and Italian armies. Mauritius was never really threatened, but in 1943, several British ships were sunk outside Port Louis by German submarines. In the initial stages of the war, locally recruited military formations were raised in order to defend the country in case the British imperial troops had to leave. On 24 March 1943, theMauritius Regiment, was created as an imperial unit and a new subsidiary of the East Africa Command (EAC). In late 1943, the 1st Battalion of the Mauritius Regiment (1MR) was sent to Madagascar for training, and in their place a battalion of theKing's African Rifles (KAR) was stationed in Mauritius. The dispatch of the 1MR proved to be politically unpopular on the basis of some troops resenting conscription and the battalion overseas comprising solely non-white troops, exacerbating racial tensions in the country. The 1MR troops were further aggrieved at the segregation they were subject to, unequal pay, physically demanding training, and were fearful of the Japanese soldiers, all these factors culminated in the 1MR mutinying.[69]
During World War II, conditions were hard in the country; the prices of commodities doubled but workers' salaries increased only by 10 to 20 percent. There was civil unrest, and the colonial government censored all trade union activities. However, the labourers of Belle Vue Harel Sugar Estate went on strike on 27 September 1943.[70] Police officers eventually fired directly at the crowd, resulting in the deaths of four labourers.[71] This became known as the1943 Belle Vue Harel Massacre.[72][73] Social worker and leader of the Jan Andolan movementBasdeo Bissoondoyal organised the funeral ceremonies of the four dead labourers.[74] Three months later, on 12 December 1943, Bissoondoyal organised a mass gathering at "Marie Reine de la Paix" in Port Louis, and the significant crowd of workers from all over the island confirmed the popularity of the Jan Andolan movement.[75]
After the proclamation of the 1947Constitution of Mauritius, the general elections were held on 9 August 1948 – and, for the first time, the colonial government expanded the franchise to all adults who could write their name in one of the island's 19 languages, abolishing the previous gender and property qualifications.[76][77]Guy Rozemont'sLabour Party won the majority of the votes with 11 of the 19 elected seats won byHindus. However, theGovernor-GeneralDonald Mackenzie-Kennedy appointed 12 Conservatives to the Legislative Council on 23 August 1948 to perpetuate the predominance of whiteFranco-Mauritians.[78][76] In 1948,Emilienne Rochecouste became the first woman to be elected to the Legislative Council.[79]Guy Rozemont's party bettered its position in 1953, and, on the strength of the election results, demandeduniversal suffrage. Constitutional conferences were held in London in 1955 and 1957, and the ministerial system was introduced. Voting took place for the first time on the basis of universal adult suffrage on 9 March 1959. The general election was again won by the Labour Party, led this time by SirSeewoosagur Ramgoolam.[80]
A Constitutional Review Conference was held in London in 1961, and a programme of further constitutional advance was established. The 1963 election was won by the Labour Party and its allies. TheColonial Office noted that politics of a communal nature was gaining ground in Mauritius and that the choice of candidates (by parties) and the voting behaviour (of electors) were governed by ethnic and caste considerations.[80] Around that time, two eminent British academics,Richard Titmuss andJames Meade, published a report of the island's social problems caused by overpopulation and the monoculture of sugar cane. This led to an intense campaign to halt the population explosion, and the decade registered a sharp decline in population growth.[81]
In early 1965, a political assassination took place in the suburb of Belle-Rose, in the town of Quatre Bornes, where Labour activist Rampersad Surath was beaten to death by thugs of rival partyParti Mauricien.[82][83] On 10 May 1965,racial riots broke out in the village ofTrois Boutiques nearSouillac and progressed to the historic village ofMahébourg. A nationwidestate of emergency was declared on the whole British colony. The riot was initiated by the murder of Police Constable Beesoo in his vehicle by a Creole gang. This was followed by the murder of a civilian named Mr. Robert Brousse in Trois Boutiques.[84] The Creole gang then proceeded to the coastal historic village of Mahébourg to assault the Indo-Mauritian spectators who were watching a Hindustani movie at Cinéma Odéon. Mahébourg police recorded nearly 100 complaints of assaults on Indo-Mauritians.[85]
Independence and constitutional monarchy (1968–1992)
At the Lancaster Conference of 1965, it became clear that Britain wanted to relieve itself of the colony of Mauritius. In 1959,Harold Macmillan had made his famous "Wind of Change Speech" in which he acknowledged that the best option for Britain was to give complete independence to its colonies. Thus, since the late fifties, the way was paved for independence.[86]
Later in 1965, after the Lancaster Conference, theChagos Archipelago was excised from the territory of Mauritius to form theBritish Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT). A general election took place on 7 August 1967, and theIndependence Party obtained the majority of seats. In January 1968, six weeks before the declaration of independence the1968 Mauritian riots occurred in Port Louis, leading to the deaths of 25 people.[87][88]
Mauritius adopted a new constitution, and independence was proclaimed on 12 March 1968. SirSeewoosagur Ramgoolam became the first prime minister of an independent Mauritius – withQueen Elizabeth II remaining head of state as Queen of Mauritius.
In 1969, the opposition party,Mauritian Militant Movement (MMM), was founded, led byPaul Bérenger. Later, in 1971, the MMM – backed by unions – called a series of strikes in the port, which caused a state of emergency in the country.[89]
The coalition government of the Labour Party and the PMSD (Parti Mauricien Social Démocrate) reacted by curtailing civil liberties and curbingfreedom of the press.[61] Two unsuccessful apparent assassination attempts were made against Paul Bérenger in 1971, killing his supporter Fareed Muttur[90] and dock worker and activistAzor Adélaïde.[91] General elections were postponed and public meetings were prohibited. Members of the MMM, including Paul Bérenger, were imprisoned on 23 December 1971. The MMM leader was released a year later.[92]
In 1973, Mauritius became the first country in Africa to be free from diagnoses ofmalaria.
In May 1975, a student revolt that started at theUniversity of Mauritius swept across the country.[93] The students were unsatisfied with an education system that did not meet their aspirations, and that gave limited prospects for future employment. On 20 May, thousands of students tried to enter Port-Louis over the Grand River North West bridge, and clashed with police. An act of Parliament was passed on 16 December 1975 to extend the right to vote to 18-year-olds. This was seen as an attempt to appease the frustration of the younger generation.[57]
The next general elections took place on20 December 1976. The Labour-CAM coalition won only 28 seats out of 62.[94] The MMM secured 34 seats in Parliament but outgoing Prime Minister SirSeewoosagur Ramgoolam managed to remain in office, with a two-seat majority, after striking an alliance with the PMSD ofGaetan Duval.
In 1981,United States newspapers reported that theCentral Intelligence Agency (CIA) was planning a covert operation to support the government of Mauritius as part of CIA strategy in the largerCold War. According to the Washington Post, citing U.S. government sources, the planned operation was "mainly a quiet CIA effort to slip money" to the Mauritian government.[95] This claim was repeated in a 1987 book by journalistBob Woodward, who further wrote that the U.S. government feared that Mauritius could become aSoviet naval base if a "pro-Western" government did not remain in power.[96]
In 1982 anMMM-PSM government (led byPMAnerood Jugnauth,Deputy PMHarish Boodhoo and Finance MinisterPaul Bérenger) was elected. However, ideological and personality differences emerged within the MMM and PSM leadership. The power struggle between Bérenger and Jugnauth peaked in March 1983. Jugnauth travelled to New Delhi to attend the7th Summit of theNon-Aligned Movement summit; on his return, Bérenger proposed constitutional changes that would strip power from the Prime Minister. At Jugnauth's request, PMIndira Gandhi of India planned an armed intervention involving theIndian Navy andIndian Army to prevent a coup under the code nameOperation Lal Dora.[97][98][99]
TheMMM-PSM government split up nine months after the June 1982 election. According to an Information Ministry official the nine months was a "socialist experiment".[100]Harish Boodhoo dissolved his partyPSM to enable all PSM parliamentarians to join Jugnauth's new party MSM, thus remaining in power whilst distancing themselves fromMMM.[101] The MSM-Labour-PMSD coalition was victorious at theAugust 1983 elections, resulting inAnerood Jugnauth as PM andGaëtan Duval asDeputy PM.
That period saw growth in the EPZ (Export Processing Zone) sector. Industrialisation began to spread to villages as well, and attracted young workers from all ethnic communities. As a result, the sugar industry began to lose its hold on the economy. Large retail chains began opening stores in 1985 and offered credit facilities to low-income earners, thus allowing them to afford basic household appliances. There was also a boom in the tourism industry, and new hotels sprang up throughout the island. In 1989 thestock exchange opened its doors, and in 1992, the freeport began operation.[61] In 1990, thePrime Minister lost the vote on changing the Constitution to make the country a republic with Bérenger as president.[102]
Despite an improvement in the economy, which coincided with a fall in the price of petrol and a favourable dollar exchange rate, the government did not enjoy full popularity. As early as 1984, there was discontent. Through theNewspapers and Periodicals Amendment Act, the government tried to make every newspaper provide a bank guarantee of half a million rupees. Forty-three journalists protested by participating in a public demonstration in Port Louis, in front of Parliament. They were arrested and freed on bail. This caused a public outcry and the government had to review its policy.[61]
There was also dissatisfaction in the education sector. There were not enough high-quality secondary colleges to answer the growing demand of primary school leavers who had got through their CPE (Certificate of Primary Education). In 1991, a master plan for education failed to get national support and contributed to the government's downfall.[61]
In December 1995,Navin Ramgoolam was elected asPM of the Labour–MMM alliance. In October 1996, the triple murder of political activists at Gorah-Issac Street in Port Louis led to several arrests and a long investigation.[105]
The year 1999 was marked by civil unrest and riots inFebruary and then inMay. Following the Kaya riots, PresidentCassam Uteem and CardinalJean Margéot toured the country and calm was restored after four days of turmoil.[106] A commission of enquiry was set up to investigate the root causes of the social disturbance. The resulting report delved into the cause of poverty and qualified many tenacious beliefs as perceptions.[107] In January 2000, political activist Rajen Sabapathee was shot dead after he escaped from La Bastille jail.[108]
SirAnerood Jugnauth of the MSM returned to power in September 2000 after securing an alliance with the MMM. In 2002, the island ofRodrigues became an autonomous entity within the republic and was thus able to elect its own representatives to administer the island. In 2003, theprime ministership was transferred toPaul Bérenger of the MMM, and Sir Anerood Jugnauth became president. Bérenger was the first Franco-Mauritian Prime Minister in the country's post-Independence history.
In the2005 elections, Navin Ramgoolam became PM under the new coalition of Labour–PMXD–VF–MR–MMSM. In the2010 elections the Labour–MSM–PMSD alliance secured power and Navin Ramgoolam remained PM until 2014.[109]
The MSM–PMSD–ML coalition was victorious at the2014 elections under Anerood Jugnauth's leadership. Despite disagreements within the ruling alliance that led to the departure of PMSD, the MSM–ML stayed in power for their full 5-year term.[110]
On 21 January 2017, Sir Anerood Jugnauth announced his resignation and that his son and Finance MinisterPravind Jugnauth would assume the office of prime minister.[111] The transition took place as planned on 23 January 2017.[112]
On 25 July 2020, Japanese-owned bulk carrier MV Wakashio ran aground on a coral reef off the coast of Mauritius, leaking up to 1,000 tonnes of heavy oil into a pristine lagoon.[116] Its location on the edge of protected fragile marine ecosystems and a wetland of international importance made theMV Wakashio oil spill one of the worstenvironmental disasters ever to hit the western Indian Ocean.[117]
The total land area of the country is 2,040 km2 (790 sq mi). It is the170th largest nation in the world by size. The Republic of Mauritius comprises Mauritius Island andseveral outlying islands. The nation'sexclusive economic zone covers about 2.3 million km2 (890,000 sq mi) of the Indian Ocean, including approximately 400,000 km2 (150,000 sq mi) jointly managed with theSeychelles.[119][120][121]
Mauritius is 2,000 km (1,200 mi) off the southeast coast of Africa, between latitudes19°58.8'S and20°31.7'S and longitudes57°18.0'E and57°46.5'E. It is 65 km (40 mi) long and 45 km (30 mi) wide. Its land area is 1,864.8 km2 (720.0 sq mi).[122][123] The island is surrounded by more than 150 km (100 mi) of white sandy beaches, and the lagoons are protected from the open sea by the world's third-largest coral reef, which surrounds the island.[124] Just off the Mauritian coast lie some 49 uninhabited islands andislets, several of which have been declared natural reserves for endangered species.
Mauritius Island (Mauritian Creole:Lil Moris; French:Île Maurice,pronounced[ilmoʁis]) is relatively young geologically, having been created by volcanic activity some 8 million years ago. Together with Saint Brandon, Réunion, and Rodrigues, the island is part of theMascarene Islands. These islands emerged as a result of gigantic underwater volcanic eruptions that happened thousands of kilometres to the east of the continental block made up of Africa and Madagascar.[125] They are no longer volcanically active and thehotspot now rests under Réunion Island. Mauritius is encircled by a broken ring of mountain ranges, varying in height from 300 to 800 metres (1,000 to 2,600 ft) above sea level. The land rises from coastal plains to a central plateau where it reaches a height of 670 m (2,200 ft); the highest peak is in the south-west,Piton de la Petite Rivière Noire at 828 metres (2,717 ft). Streams and rivers speckle the island, many formed in the cracks created by lava flows.
The autonomous island ofRodrigues is located 560 km (350 mi) to the east of Mauritius, with an area 108 km2 (42 sq mi).[125] Rodrigues is avolcanic island rising from a ridge along the edge of theMascarene Plateau. The island is hilly with a central spine culminating in the highest peak,Mont Limon at 398 m (1,306 ft). The island also has acoral reef and extensivelimestone deposits. According to Statistics Mauritius, at 1 July 2019, the population of the island was estimated at 43,371.[126]
The Chagos Archipelago is composed of atolls and islands, and is located approximately 2,200 kilometres north-east of the main island of Mauritius. The islands are set to be transferred to Mauritius in 2025, having previously formed theBritish Indian Ocean Territory, with the exception ofDiego Garcia, which remains under British administration on a 99-year lease.
To the north of the Chagos Archipelago arePeros Banhos, theSalomon Islands andNelsons Island; to the south-west areThe Three Brothers,Eagle Islands,Egmont Islands andDanger Island.Diego Garcia is in the south-east of the archipelago.[13] In 2016, the Chagossian population was estimated at 8,700 in Mauritius, including 483 natives; 350 Chagossians live in the Seychelles, including 75 natives, while 3,000, including 127 natives, live in the UK (the population having grown from the 1200 Chagossians who moved there).[127]
St. Brandon, also known as the Cargados Carajos shoals, is located 402 kilometres (250 mi) northeast of Mauritius Island. Saint Brandon is an archipelago composed of the remnants of the lost micro continent ofMauritia[128] and consists of five island groups, with between 28 and 40 islands in total, depending on seasonal storms, cyclones, and related sand movements. In 2008, thePrivy Council (United Kingdom) judgment (Article 71) confirmedRaphaël Fishing Company as "the holder of aPermanent Grant of the thirteen islands mentioned in the 1901 Deed (transcribed in Vol TB25 No 342) subject to the conditions therein referred to".[129] In 2002, St. Brandon was classified in 10th place globally by UNESCO for inclusion as a World Heritage Site well ahead of any other Mauritian candidates at the time.[130]
On 8 May 2024, theSaint Brandon Conservation Trust was launched internationally at the Corporate Council on Africa in Dallas, Texas.[131] The trust's mission is to protect, restore and conserve St. Brandon.
The twin islands ofAgaléga are located some 1,000 kilometres (600 miles) to the north of Mauritius.[125] Its North Island is 12.5 km (7.8 mi) long and 1.5 km (0.93 mi) wide, while its South Island is 7 by 4.5 km (4.3 by 2.8 mi). The total area of both islands is 26 km2 (10 sq mi). According to Statistics Mauritius, at 1 July 2019, the population of Agaléga and St. Brandon was estimated at 274.[126]
Tromelin Island lies 430 km north-west of Mauritius. Mauritius claims sovereignty over Tromelin island, though it is registered as a part of France.
The French took control of Mauritius in 1715, renaming itIsle de France. France officially ceded Mauritius including all its dependencies to Britain through theTreaty of Paris, signed on 30 May 1814 and in whichRéunion was returned to France. TheBritish Colony of Mauritius consisted of the main island of Mauritius along with its dependenciesRodrigues,Agaléga,St. Brandon, Tromelin (disputed) and theChagos Archipelago, while theSeychelles became a separate colony in 1906. It is disputed whether the transfer of Isle de France (as Mauritius was previously known under French rule) and its dependencies to Britain in 1814 included Tromelin island. Article 8 of the Treaty of Paris stipulate the cession by France to Britain of Isle de France "and its dependencies, namely Rodrigues and the Seychelles". France considers that the sovereignty of Tromelin island was never transferred to Britain. Mauritius's claim is based on the fact that the transfer of Isle de France and its dependencies to Britain in 1814 was general in nature, that it was beyond those called out in the Treaty of Paris, and that all the dependencies of Isle de France were not specifically mentioned in the Treaty. Mauritius's claim is that since Tromelin was a dependency of Isle de France, it was 'de facto' transferred to Britain in 1814. The islands ofAgaléga,St Brandon and theChagos Archipelago were also not specifically mentioned in the Treaty of Paris but became part of the British Colony of Mauritius as they were dependencies of Isle de France at that time. In addition, the British authorities in Mauritius had been taking administrative measures with respect to Tromelin over the years; for instance, British officials granted four guano operating concessions on Tromelin island between 1901 and 1951.[20] In 1959, British officials in Mauritius informed theWorld Meteorological Organization that it considered Tromelin to be part of its territory.[132] A co-management treaty was reached by France and Mauritius in 2010 but has not been ratified.[133]
Mauritius has long soughtsovereignty over theChagos Archipelago, located 1,287 km (800 mi) to the north-east. Chagos was administratively part of Mauritius from the 18th century when the French first settled the islands. All of the islands forming part of the French colonial territory ofIsle de France (as Mauritius was then known) were ceded to the British in 1810 under the Act of Capitulation signed between the two powers.[134]
In 1965, three years before the independence of Mauritius, the United Kingdom split the Chagos Archipelago away from Mauritius, and the islands ofAldabra,Farquhar, andDesroches from theSeychelles, to form the British Indian Ocean Territory. The islands were formally established as an overseas territory of the United Kingdom on 8 November 1965.[135] During UK-US discussions on the Indian Ocean in November 1975, the United Kingdom expressed its intention to return the islands of Aldabra, Farquhar, and Desroches to Seychelles to facilitate its peaceful transition to independence by June 1976.[136] Both the UK and the United States acknowledged that these islands could not be used for defense purposes, as they were populated, and forcibly removing inhabitants, as had occurred in the Chagos Archipelago, would be politically unfeasible.[137] On 18 March 1976, the UK and Seychelles signed an agreement to transfer the islands, which officially returned to Seychelles on its Independence Day, 29 June 1976.[138] The BIOT now comprises the Chagos Archipelago only. The UK leased the main island of the archipelago,Diego Garcia, to the United States under a 50-year lease to establish a military base.[134][139] In 2016, Britain extended the lease to the US till 2036.[140] Mauritius has repeatedly asserted that the separation of its territories is a violation of United Nations resolutions banning the dismemberment of colonial territories before independence and claims that theChagos Archipelago, includingDiego Garcia, forms an integral part of the territory of Mauritius under both Mauritian law and international law.[141] Between 1968 and 1973, British officials forcibly expelled over 1,000Chagossians to Mauritius and the Seychelles. As part of the deportation, British officials have been accused of ordering the island's dog population of 1,000 to be gassed.[142][143] At the United Nations and in statements to its Parliament, the UK stated that there was no "permanent population" in the Chagos Archipelago and described the population as "contract labourers" who were relocated.[12] Since 1971, only the atoll of Diego Garcia is inhabited, home to some 3,000 UK and US military and civilian contracted personnel. Chagossians have since engaged in activism to return to the archipelago, claiming that their forced expulsion and dispossession were illegal.[144][145]
Mauritius considers the territorial sea of the Chagos Archipelago and Tromelin island as part of itsexclusive economic zone.[14]
On 20 December 2010, Mauritius initiated proceedings against the United Kingdom under theUnited Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) to challenge the legality of theChagos Marine Protected Area (MPA), which the UK purported to declare around the Chagos Archipelago in April 2010. The dispute was arbitrated by thePermanent Court of Arbitration. The Tribunal's decision determined that the UK's undertaking to return the Chagos Archipelago to Mauritius gives Mauritius an interest in significant decisions that bear upon possible future uses of the archipelago.[146]
On 25 February 2019, the judges of theInternational Court of Justice by thirteen votes to one stated that the United Kingdom is under an obligation to bring to an end its administration of the Chagos Archipelago as rapidly as possible. Only the American judge,Joan Donoghue, voted in favor of the UK. The president of the court,Abdulqawi Ahmed Yusuf, said the detachment of the Chagos Archipelago in 1965 from Mauritius had not been based on a "free and genuine expression of the people concerned". "This continued administration constitutes a wrongful act", he said, adding "The UK has an obligation to bring to an end its administration of the Chagos Archipelago as rapidly as possible and that all member states must co-operate with the United Nations to complete the decolonization of Mauritius."[147]
On 22 May 2019, the United Nations General Assembly debated and adopted a resolution that affirmed that the Chagos Archipelago, which has been occupied by the UK for more than 50 years, "forms an integral part of the territory of Mauritius". The resolution gives effect to an advisory opinion of the International Court of Justice (ICJ), demanded that the UK "withdraw its colonial administration ... unconditionally within a period of no more than six months". 116 states voted in favour of the resolution, 55 abstained and only Australia, Hungary, Israel and Maldives supported the UK and US. During the debate, the Mauritian Prime Minister described the expulsion of Chagossians as "acrime against humanity".[148] While the resolution is not legally binding, it carries significant political weight since the ruling came from the UN's highest court and the assembly vote reflects world opinion.[149] The resolution also has immediate practical consequences: the UN, its specialised agencies, and all other international organisations are now bound, as a matter of UN law, to support the decolonisation of Mauritius even if the UK claim that it has no doubt about its sovereignty.[148]
On 3 October 2024 it was announced through a joint statement by the UK and Mauritian governments that the archipelago was to have its sovereignty transferred to Mauritius. The island of Diego Garcia, which contains the military base Camp Justice, was the only exception to this new treaty, with administration being leased to the United Kingdom by the Mauritian government for a period of at least 99 years.[150] The transfer agreement was signed on 22 May 2025, with the provision that the island of Diego Garcia would be leased back to the UK for at least 99 years.[151] The UK government expects the treaty to be ratified near the end of 2025.[2]
The environment in Mauritius is typically tropical in the coastal regions with forests in the mountainous areas. Seasonal cyclones are destructive to its flora and fauna, although they recover quickly. Mauritius ranked second in anair quality index released by theWorld Health Organization in 2011.[152] It had a 2019Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.46/10, ranking it 100th globally out of 172 countries.[153]
Situated near theTropic of Capricorn, Mauritius has atropical climate. There are 2 seasons: a warm humid summer from November to April, with a mean temperature of 24.7 °C (76.5 °F) and a relatively cool dry winter from June to September with a mean temperature of 20.4 °C (68.7 °F). The temperature difference between the seasons is only 4.3°C (7.7°F). The warmest months are January and February with average day maximum temperature reaching 29.2 °C (84.6 °F) and the coolest months are July and August with average overnight minimum temperatures of 16.4 °C (61.5 °F). Annual rainfall ranges from 900 mm (35 in) on the coast to 1,500 mm (59 in) on the central plateau. Although there is no marked rainy season, most of the rainfall occurs in the summer months. Sea temperature in the lagoon varies from 22–27 °C (72–81 °F). The central plateau is much cooler than the surroundingcoastal areas and can experience as much as twice the rainfall. The prevailing trade winds keep the east side of the island cooler and bring more rain. Occasionaltropical cyclones generally occur between January and March and tend to disrupt the weather for about three days, bringing heavy rain.[154]
Prime MinisterPravind Jugnauth declared an environmental state of emergency after the 25 July2020MV Wakashio oil spill.[155] France sent aircraft and specialists fromRéunion andGreenpeace said that the leak threatened the survival of thousands of species, who are at "risk of drowning in a sea of pollution".[156]Mauritius is increasingly vulnerable toclimate change, facing rising temperatures,sea levels, and more frequentextreme weather events. The island faces stronger tropical cyclones, prolonged droughts, flash floods, landslides, andmarine heatwaves which leading tocoral bleaching.[157][158][159] Coastal erosion, driven by rising sea levels, threatens infrastructure and freshwater supplies.[158][160] Climate change is also impacting key sectors such as tourism and fisheries, with significant economic consequences.[158] Toadapt, Mauritius is implementing disaster preparedness measures, protecting coastal ecosystems likemangroves, and raising public awareness.[161][162][163]
The country is home to some of the world's rarest plants and animals, but human habitation and the introduction ofnon-native species have threatened its indigenous flora and fauna.[144] Due to its volcanic origin, age, isolation, and unique terrain, Mauritius is home to a diversity of flora and fauna not usually found in such a small area. Before the Portuguese arrival in 1507, there were no terrestrial mammals on the island. This allowed the evolution of a number of flightless birds and large reptile species. The arrival of humans saw the introduction of invasive alien species, the rapid destruction of habitat and the loss of much of the endemic flora and fauna. In particular, theextinction of the flightlessdodo bird, a species unique to Mauritius, has become a representative example of human-driven extinction.[164][165][166] The dodo is prominently featured as a (heraldic)supporter of the nationalcoat of arms of Mauritius.[167]
Less than 2% of thenative forest now remains, concentrated in theBlack River Gorges National Park in the south-west, the Bambous Mountain Range in the south-east, and the Moka-Port Louis Ranges in the north-west. There are some isolated mountains,Corps de Garde,Le Morne Brabant, and severaloffshore islands, with remnants of coastal and mainland diversity. Over 100 species of plants and animals have become extinct and many more are threatened. Conservation activities began in the 1980s with the implementation of programmes for the reproduction of threatened bird and plant species as well as habitat restoration in the national parks and nature reserves.[168]
In 2011, the Ministry of Environment & Sustainable Development issued the "Mauritius Environment Outlook Report," which recommended that St Brandon be declared aMarine protected area. In the President's Report of theMauritian Wildlife Foundation (MWF) dated March 2016, St Brandon is declared an official MWF project to promote the conservation of the atoll.[169]
TheMauritian flying fox is the only remaining mammal endemic to the island, and has been severely threatened in recent years due to the government sanctioned culling introduced in November 2015 due to the belief that they were a threat to fruit plantations. Prior to 2015 the lack of severe cyclone had seen the fruit bat population increase and the status of the species was then changed by theIUCN from Endangered to Vulnerable in 2014. October 2018, saw the authorisation of the cull of 20% of the fruit bat population, amounting to 13,000 of the estimated 65,000 fruit bats remaining, although their status had already reverted to Endangered due to the previous years' culls.[170]
The National Assembly is Mauritius'sunicameral legislature, which was called the Legislative Assembly until 1992, when the country became a republic. It consists of 70 members, 62 elected for four-year terms in multi-memberconstituencies and eight additional members, known as "best losers", appointed by the Electoral Service Commission to ensure that ethnic and religious minorities are equitably represented. The UN Human Rights Committee (UNHRC), which monitors member states' compliance with the International Covenant on Political and Civil Rights (ICPCR), has criticised the country's Best Loser System following a complaint by a local youth and trade union movement.[171] The president is elected for a five-year term by the Parliament.
The island of Mauritius is divided into20 constituencies that return three members each. The island of Rodrigues is a single district that returns two members.
After a general election, the Electoral Supervisory Commission may nominate up to eight additional members with a view to correct any imbalance in the representation of ethnic minorities in Parliament. This system of nominating members is commonly called thebest loser system.
The political party or party alliance that wins the majority of seats in Parliament forms the government. Its leader becomes the Prime Minister, who selects the Cabinet from elected members of the Assembly, except for theAttorney General of Mauritius, who may not be an elected member of the Assembly. The political party or alliance which has the second largest group of representatives forms the Official Opposition and its leader is normally nominated by the President of the Republic as the Leader of the Opposition. The Assembly elects a Speaker, a Deputy Speaker and a Deputy Chairman of Committees as some of its first tasks.
Mauritius is a democracy with a government elected every five years. The most recent National Assembly Election was held on 7 November 2019 in all the 20 mainland constituencies, and in the constituency covering the island of Rodrigues. Elections have tended to be a contest between two major coalitions of parties.
Mauritius has a single first-order administrative division, theOuter Islands of Mauritius (French:Îles éparses de Maurice), which consists of several outlying islands.[176]
All military, police, and security functions in Mauritius are carried out by 10,000 active-duty servicemembers under the Commissioner of Police. The 8,000-member National Police Force is responsible for domestic law enforcement. The 1,400-strongSpecial Mobile Force (SMF) and the 688-strong coast guard are the only two paramilitary units in Mauritius. Both units are composed of police officers on lengthy rotations to those services. Mauritius also has a special operations military known asGIPM that will intervene in any terrorist attack or high risk operations.[177]
Mauritius has strong and friendly relations with various African, American, Asian, European and Oceanic countries. Considered part of Africa geographically, Mauritius has friendly relations with African states in the region, particularlySouth Africa, by far its largest continental trading partner. Mauritian investors are gradually entering African markets, notably Madagascar, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. The country's political heritage and dependence on Western markets have led to close ties with theEuropean Union and its member states, particularly France. Relations with India are very strong for both historical and commercial reasons. Mauritius established diplomatic relations with China in April 1972 and was forced to defend this decision, along with naval contracts with the USSR in the same year. It has also been extending its Middle East outreach with the setting up of an embassy in Saudi Arabia[178] whose Ambassador also doubles as the country's ambassador to Bahrain.[179]
Mauritius has a hybrid legal system derived fromEnglish common law and theFrench civil law. TheConstitution of Mauritius established theseparation of powers between the legislature, the executive and thejudiciary and guaranteed the protection of the fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual. Mauritius has a single-structured judicial system consisting of two tiers, theSupreme Court and subordinate courts. The Supreme Court is composed of various divisions exercising jurisdiction such as the Master's Court, the Family Division, the Commercial Division (Bankruptcy), the Criminal Division, the Mediation Division, the Court of First Instance in civil and criminal proceedings, the Appellate jurisdiction: the Court of Civil Appeal and the Court of Criminal Appeal. Subordinate courts consist of the Intermediate Court, the Industrial Court, the District Courts, the Bail and Remand Court and the Court of Rodrigues. TheJudicial Committee of the Privy Council is the final court of appeal of Mauritius. After the independence of Mauritius in 1968, Mauritius maintained the Privy Council as its highest court of appeal. Appeals to the Judicial Committee from decisions of the Court of Appeal or the Supreme Court may be as of right or with the leave of the Court, as set out in section 81 of the Constitution and section 70A of the Courts Act. The Judicial Committee may also grant special leave to appeal from the decision of any court in any civil or criminal matter as per section 81(5) of the Constitution.[180]
Mauritius had a population of 1,235,260 (608,090 males, 627,170 females) according to the final results of the 2022 Census. The population on the island of Mauritius was 1,191,280 (586,590 males and 604,690 females), and that ofRodrigues island was 43,650 (21,330 males and 22,320 females); Agalega island total population of 330 (170 males and 160 females).[7][8][4] Mauritius has the second highestpopulation density in the region of Africa. According to the 2022 census, the average age of the population was 38 years.[7][8][4] The 2022 Census indicated that the proportion of children aged below 15 years went down from 20.7% in 2011 to 15.4% in 2022 while the share of persons aged 60 years and over has risen from 12.7% to 18.7% in the same period.[4]
According to theConstitution of Mauritius, there are 4 distinct communities on the island for the purposes of representation in the National Assembly. Schedule I, Paragraph 3(4) of the Constitution states thatThe population of Mauritius shall be regarded as including a Hindu community, a Muslim community, and a Sino-Mauritian community, and every person who does not appear, from his way of life, to belong to one or other of those three communities shall be regarded as belonging to the General Population, which shall itself be regarded as a fourth community.[185] Thus each ethnic group in Mauritius falls within one of the four main communities known asHindus,General Population,Muslims andSino-Mauritians.[186][187]
As per the above constitutional provision, the 1972 ethnic statistics are used to implement theBest Loser System, the method used in Mauritius since the 1950s to guarantee ethnic representation across the entire electorate in theNational Assembly without organising the representation wholly by ethnicity.[188]
According to the 2022 census conducted byStatistics Mauritius, 47.87% of the Mauritian population followsHinduism; 32.29% follows Christianity, with more than three-fourths of that number practicingCatholicism;Islam (18.24%)[6]: 138 and other religions (0.86%) (includingChinese ethnic religions). 0.63% reported themselves asnon-religious and 0.11% did not answer.[189]
The constitution prohibits discrimination on religious grounds and provides for freedom to practice, change one's religion or not have any. TheCatholic Church,Church of England,Presbyterian Church of Mauritius, Seventh-day Adventists, Hindu Temples Associations and Muslim Mosques Organisations enjoy tax-exemptions and are allocated financial support based on their respective share of the population. Other religious groups can register and be tax-exempt but receive no financial support.[190] Public holidays of religious origins are the Hindu festivals ofMaha Shivaratri,Ougadi,Thaipoosam Cavadee,Ganesh Chaturthi, andDiwali; the Christian festivals ofAll Saints Day andChristmas; and the Muslim festival ofEid al-Fitr.[191] The state actively participates in their organisation with special committees presiding over the pilgrimage toGanga Talao forMaha Shivaratri and the annual Catholic procession toJacques-Désiré Laval's resting place atSainte-Croix.[192]
TheMauritian constitution makes no mention of anofficial language.[193] It only mentions that the official language of the National Assembly isEnglish; however, any member can also address the chair inFrench.[194] English and French are generally considered to be de facto national and common languages of Mauritius, as they are the languages of government administration, courts, and business.[195] The constitution of Mauritius is written in English, while some laws, such as theCivil andCriminal codes, are in French. The Mauritian currency features theLatin,Tamil andDevanagari scripts.
The Mauritian population ismultilingual; whileMauritian Creole is themother tongue of most Mauritians, most people are also fluent in English and French; they tend to switch languages according to the situation.[196] French and English are favoured in educational and professional settings, while Asian languages are used mainly in music, religious and cultural activities. The media and literature are primarily in French.
School students must learn English and French; they may also opt for an Asian language or Mauritian Creole. The medium of instruction varies from school to school but is usually English for public and government subsidised private schools and mainly French for paid private ones.O-Level andA-Level Exams are organised in public and government subsidised private schools in English byCambridge International Examinations while paid private schools mostly follow theFrench Baccalaureate model.
Theeducation system in Mauritius consists of pre-primary, primary, secondary and tertiary sectors. The education structure consists of two to three years of pre-primary school, six years of primary schooling leading to the Primary School Achievement Certificate, five years of secondary education leading to the School Certificate, and two years of higher secondary ending with the Higher School Certificate.
The tertiary education sector includes universities and other technical institutions in Mauritius. The two main public universities are theUniversity of Mauritius and theUniversity of Technology, in addition to theUniversité des Mascareignes, founded in 2012, and theOpen University of Mauritius. These four public universities and several other technical institutes and higher education colleges are tuition-free for students as of 2019.[208]
The government of Mauritius providesfree education to its citizens from pre-primary to tertiary level. In 2013 government expenditure on education was estimated at ₨ 13,584 million, representing 13% of total expenditure.[209] As of January 2017, the government has introduced changes to the education system with the Nine-Year Continuous Basic Education programme, which abolished the Certificate of Primary Education (CPE).[210]
Mauritius is often described as the most developed country in the region of Africa.[212][213] Since independence from Britain in 1968, Mauritius has developed from a low-income, agriculture-based economy to ahigh-income diversified economy, based ontourism, textiles, sugar, and financial services. The economic history of Mauritius since independence has been called "the Mauritian Miracle" and the "success of Africa" (Romer, 1992; Frankel, 2010; Stiglitz, 2011).[214]
In recent years, information and communication technology, seafood, hospitality and property development, healthcare, renewable energy, andeducation and training have emerged as important sectors, attracting substantial investment from both local and foreign investors.[5] Mauritius has one of the largestexclusive economic zones in the world, and in 2012 the government announced its intention to develop the marine economy.[215]
Mauritius has no exploitable fossil fuel reserves and so relies on petroleum products to meet most of its energy requirements. Local and renewable energy sources are biomass, hydro, solar and wind energy.[216] Mauritius contributes approximately 0.01% of globalgreenhouse gas emissions.[217] The country has pledged to cut emissions by 40% by 2030 compared to projected levels without intervention, with a goal of reachingnet zero by 2070.[218] As part of its climate change strategy, Mauritius plans to eliminate coal from electricity generation by 2030, reducelandfill waste by diverting 70% of it through acircular economy approach, and increase the share ofelectric vehicles to 15% by the same year.[219]
Mauritius is ranked high in terms of economic competitiveness, a friendly investment climate, good governance and a free economy.[220][221][222] The Gross Domestic Product (PPP) was estimated at US$29.187 billion in 2018, andGDP (PPP) per capita was over US$22,909, the second highest in Africa.[220][221][222]
Mauritius has ahigh-income economy, according to theWorld Bank in 2019.[32] The World Bank's 2019Ease of Doing Business Index ranks Mauritius 13th worldwide out of 190 economies in terms of ease of doing business. According to the Mauritian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the country's challenges are heavy reliance on a few industry sectors, high brain drain, scarcity of skilled labour, ageing population and inefficient public companies and para-statal bodies.[223]
According to theFinancial Services Commission, financial and insurance activities contributed to 11.1% of the country's GDP in 2018.[226] Over the years, Mauritius has been positioning itself as the preferred hub for investment into Africa due its strategic location between Asia and Africa, hybrid regulatory framework, ease of doing business, investment protection treaties, non-double taxation treaties, highly qualified and multilingual workforce, political stability, low crime rate coupled with modern infrastructure and connectivity. It is home to a number of international banks, legal firms, corporate services, investment funds and private equity funds. Financial products and services include private banking, global business, insurance and reinsurance, limited companies, protected cell companies, trust and foundation, investment banking, global headquarter administration.[227][228]
Corporate tax rate ranges from 15% to 17% and individual tax rate ranges from 10% to 25%.[229][230] While the country also offers incentives such as tax holidays and exemptions in some specific sectors to boost its competitiveness, the country is often tagged as atax haven by the press due to individuals and companies who engaged in abusive practices in its financial sector.[231] The country has built up a solid reputation by making use of best practices and adopting a strong legal and regulatory framework to demonstrate its compliance with international demands for greater transparency.[232] In June 2015, Mauritius adhered to the multilateralConvention on Mutual Administrative Assistance in Tax Matters, and has an exchange information mechanism with 127 jurisdictions. Mauritius is a founding member of the Eastern and Southern Africa Anti Money Laundering Group and has been at the forefront in the fight against money laundering and other forms of financial crime. The country has adopted exchange of information on an automatic basis under theCommon Reporting Standard and theForeign Accounts Tax Compliance Act.[233]
Mauritius is a major tourist destination, and the tourism sector is one of the main pillars of the Mauritian economy. The island nation enjoys a tropical climate with clear warm sea waters, beaches, tropical fauna and flora, complemented by a multi-ethnic and cultural population.[234] The forecast of tourist arrivals for the year 2019 is maintained at 1,450,000, representing an increase of 3.6% over the figure of 1,399,408 in 2018.[235]
Since 2005 public buses, and later trains, in Mauritius have been free of charge for students, people with disabilities, and senior citizens.[237] TheMetro Express railway currently links all five cities and theUniversity of Mauritius atRéduit with planned expansion to the east and south. Former privately owned industrial railways have been abandoned since the 1960s. The harbour ofPort Louis handles international trade as well as a cruise terminal. TheSir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam International Airport, the largest one in the Indian Ocean, is the main international airport and serves as the home operating base for the national airlineAir Mauritius.[238] ThePlaine Corail Airport operates fromRodrigues ensuring air link with the main island of Mauritius and international flights withRéunion.
Historical Mauritius. A scene from the 1930sChinatown 1860sEbene City
TheMauritius "Post Office" stamps, the first stamps produced outside Great Britain, among the rarest postage stamps in the world, are widely considered "the greatest item in all philately".[241]
The distinctive architecture of Mauritius reflects the island nation's history as a colonial trade base connecting Europe with the East. Styles and forms introduced by Dutch, French, and British settlers from the seventeenth century onward, mixed with influences from India and East Africa, resulted in a unique hybrid architecture of international historic, social, and artistic significance. Mauritian structures present a variety of designs, materials, and decorative elements that are unique to the country and inform the historical context of the Indian Ocean and European colonialism.[242]
Decades of political, social, and economic change have resulted in the routine destruction of Mauritian architectural heritage. Between 1960 and 1980, the historic homes of the island's high grounds, known locally as campagnes, disappeared at alarming rates. More recent years have witnessed the demolition of plantations, residences, and civic buildings as they have been cleared or drastically renovated for new developments to serve an expanding tourism industry. The capital city of Port Louis remained relatively unchanged until the mid-1990s, yet now reflects the irreversible damage that has been inflicted on its built heritage. Rising land values are pitted against the cultural value of historical structures in Mauritius, while the prohibitive costs of maintenance and the steady decline in traditional building skills make it harder to invest in preservation.[242]
The general populace historically lived in what are termed creole houses.[243]
Mauritian cuisine is a combination of Indian, Creole, French and Chinese cuisines, with many dishes unique to the island. Local variants of Asian and European cusines include vegetarian and non vegetariancurries,parathas locally known asfarata, the potato richbriani, wok preparedmines frires anddiriz frires, achop suey dish known asbol renversé (upside-down bowl), sausage and tomato basedrougaille andMughlai-originalouda, a cold beverage, amongst others. Locally made French pastry and bread are sold in most localities with locally unique desserts like "napolitaine", a local version ofsablé coated with a pink icing, coconut basedgâteau coco andmacacha coco and icedkulfi.[244][245][246][247][248]
The public holidays of Mauritius involve the blending of several cultures from Mauritius's history. There areHindu festivals,Christian festivals,Chinese festivals, andMuslim festivals.[254] There are 14 annual public holidays in Mauritius with New Year celebrated over two days if it falls on a weekend. All the public holidays related to religious festivals have dates that vary from year to year except for Christmas. Other festivals such asHoli,Raksha Bandhan,Durga Puja,[255]Makar Sankranti andPère Laval Pilgrimage also enrich the cultural landscape of Mauritius.
The most popular sport in Mauritius isfootball[257] and thenational team is known as The Dodos orClub M. Other popular sports in Mauritius include cycling, table tennis, horse racing, badminton, volleyball, basketball, handball, boxing, judo, karate, taekwondo, weightlifting, bodybuilding and athletics. Water sports include swimming, sailing, scuba diving, windsurfing andkitesurfing.
^TheMauritian constitution makes no mention of anofficial language. The Constitution only mentions that the official language of the National Assembly is English; however, any member can also address the chair in French.
^Allen, Richard B. (1 August 2003). "The Mascarene Slave-Trade and Labour Migration in the Indian Ocean during the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries".Slavery & Abolition.24 (2):33–50.doi:10.1080/01440390308559154.ISSN0144-039X.S2CID143805648.
^"Sunday's Post".Leeds Intelligencer. 22 July 1755. Retrieved4 July 2021.The Island of Mauritius, which is also named the Island of Monkeys, on account of the Multitude of those Animals which destroyed everything in it, was discovered in 1698 by the Dutch, who named it Mauritius, of Maurice, of Orange, and quitted it by reason of the great Number of Monkeys on it.
^Storey, William Kelleher (1995). "Small-Scale Sugar Cane Farmers and Biotechnology in Mauritius: The "Uba" Riots of 1937".Agricultural History.69 (2):163–176.JSTOR3744263.
^Jackson, Ashley (2002). "The Madagascar Mutiny of the First Battalion the Mauritius Regiment, December 1943".Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research.80 (323):232–250.ISSN0037-9700.JSTOR44230830.
^Karghoo, Christophe."Mémoire vivante". 5plus.mu. 5Plus Dimanche. Archived fromthe original on 6 June 2023. Retrieved27 September 2003.
^"Proceedings of the World Heritage Marine Biodiversity Workshop, Page 25".sahistory.org.za. p. 38. Retrieved29 February 2024.B List: 8. Kiunga-Lamu Archipelago (Kenya), opportunity for mixed nomination 9. Pemba Island (Tanzania) 10. Cargados Carajos (Mauritius) 11. Comore Archipelago (Comoros), opportunity for serial nomination with Madagascar 12. Toliara – Nosy Ve (Madagascar), opportunity for serial nomination 13. Zambezi Delta (Mozambique)
^Rumley, Dennis; Chaturvedi, Sanjay; Sakhuja, Vijay (2010).Fisheries Exploitation in the Indian Ocean: Threats and Opportunities. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 123.ISBN978-981-230-986-0.
^"Political relations". France Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs. 1 April 2020. Retrieved25 April 2020.
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![* Islands of Mauritius labelled in black. * Tromelin Island (part of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands, claimed by Mauritius). * The Chagos Archipelago (the British Indian Ocean Territory) are set to be transferred to Mauritius in 2025.[2]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMauritius_(%252Bclaim_islands).svg)
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