| Cretan School |
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The Cretan school describes an important school of icon painting, under the umbrella of post-Byzantine art, which flourished while Crete was under Venetian rule during the late Middle Ages, reaching its climax after the fall of Constantinople, becoming the central force in Greek painting during the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries. The Cretan artists developed a particular style of painting under the influence of both Eastern and Western artistic traditions and movements; the most famous product of the school, El Greco, was the most successful of the many artists who tried to build a career in Western Europe, and also the one who left the Byzantine style farthest behind him in his later career.
Early painters from Crete includedNikolaos Philanthropinos 1380-1450,Ioannis Pagomenos 1285-1340 andManuel Fokas. Philanthropinos completed some mosaics in Venice, Italy atSt Mark's Basilica in the 1430s.[1] The fathers of the Cretan school are consideredAngelos Akotantos,Andreas Pavias andAndreas Ritzos.[2][3] Some of their works include:Saint Anne with the Virgin,The Virgin Pantanassa andThe Crucifixion. Between 1454 and 1526, Crete was saturated with painting workshops, and the number of painters exceeded 145.[4] Some painters, such asNikolaos Gripiotis, produced mass quantities of unsigned icons for Italian and Greek patrons during the period, while other painters chose to sign their works.[5]
Angelos Pitzamanos andDonatos Pitzamanos traveled to Italy, fusing the Cretan style with the School of Otranto in the late 1400s and early 1500s. A popular work completed by Angelos wasMadonna of Constantinople.[6] By the mid-1500s,Michael Damaskinos andGeorgios Klontzas dominated the century with their incredible works. Some of Damaskinos' works were:Wedding at Cana,Madonna del Rosario, andBeheading of John the Baptist. Some of Klontzas' works were:In Thee Rejoiceth,Triptych of the Last Judgement, andSaint Catherine's Engagement. Both of the painters flourished around the time ofEl Greco, while Klontzas was recorded assessing one of his works.[7][8] Another notable painter of the same era wasThomas Bathas, who maintained theMiraculous Icon of the Virgin Mary at St Mark's Basilica but also painted his own version entitledVirgin Nikopoios.[9]
His studentEmmanuel Tzanfournaris was part of the late Cretan school, and he completed theVirgin of the Passion. The late Cretan school included painters from the 1600s such asElias Moskos,Emmanuel Tzanes, andTheodore Poulakis. Some of their works included:Jacob's Ladder,Saint Onuphrius andNoah's Ark. Most painters of the Cretan school began to migrate to the Ionian Islands and Venice during the war with theOttoman Empire, and the late Cretan school shares characteristics with theHeptanese school of painting.[10]
Flemish engravings were introduced to Greek paintings during the middle part of the 1600s, one of the earliest works was completed byGeorgios Markazinis integrating Flemish engravings with the Creto-Venetian style known asThe Crucifixion.[11][12] Poulakis'Noah's Ark also emulated engravings. The Greek painters living in Crete dropped from 156 between 1527-1630 to 68 between 1631-1700. While some painters remained, most of them migrated to the Ionian Islands. The last period, from 1700 to 1820, saw 52 Greek painters active in Crete during the Ottoman occupation.[4] Some included:Georgios Kastrofylakas,Michael Prevelis andIoannis Kornaros. One of Kornaros notable works includes:Catherine of Alexandria.[13]
There was a substantial demand for Byzantine icons in Europe throughout theMiddle Ages and, as a Venetian possession since 1204,Crete had a natural advantage and soon came to dominate the supply. A probable early example is the famous icon of the Virgin inRome known asOur Mother of Perpetual Help, which was certainly well known in Rome by 1499. At this date there is little to distinguish Cretan work from other Byzantine icons stylistically, and the quality of work is lower than that associated withConstantinople.
This period also saw considerable numbers of wall-paintings in local churches and monasteries – altogether some 850 from the 14th and 15th centuries survive in Crete, far more than from earlier or later periods.[14]
By the late 15th century, Cretan artists had established a distinct icon-painting style, distinguished by "the precise outlines, the modelling of the flesh with dark brown underpaint and dense tiny highlights on the cheeks of the faces, the bright colours in the garments, the geometrical treatment of the drapery, and, finally the balanced articulation of the composition",[15] or "sharp contours, slim silhouettes, linear draperies and restrained movements".[16] The most famous artist of the period wasAndreas Ritzos(c. 1421–1492), whose son Nicholas was also well known. Angelos Akotantos, until recently thought to be a conservative painter of the 17th century, is now, after the discovery of a will dated 1436, seen to have been an innovative artist in fusing Byzantine and Western styles, who survived until about 1457, when the will was actually registered. The will was made in anticipation of a voyage to Constantinople; several icons were bequeathed to church institutions, some Catholic but mainly Orthodox, and the disposition of his stock of pattern drawings was carefully specified.[17]Andreas Pavias (d. after 1504) and his pupilAngelos Bizamanos, and Nicholas Tzafuris (d. before 1501) were other leading artists.[18]
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Even before the fall ofConstantinople there is evidence that leadingByzantine artists were leaving the capital in order to settle in Crete. The migration of Byzantine artists to Crete continued increasingly during the following years and reached its peak after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, when Crete became "the most important centre of art in the Greek world", influencing artistic developments in the rest of the Greek world. Cretan icons were commissioned for monasteries onMount Athos and elsewhere.[19] Until it fell to the Turks in 1522, the Cretan school was rivalled by the smaller and less significant community of artists inRhodes.[20]The Venetian archives preserve considerable documentation on the trade of artistic icons between Venice and Crete, which by the end of the 15th century had become one of mass production. There is documentation of a specific order in 1499, of 700 icons of theVirgin, 500 in a Western style, and 200 inByzantine style. The order was placed with three artists by two dealers, one Venetian and one from mainlandGreece, and the time between contract date and delivery was set at only forty-five days. Probably the quality of many such commissioned icons was fairly low, and the dismissive termMadonneri was devised to describe such bulk painters, who later practiced in Italy also, often using a quasi-Byzantine style, and apparently often Greek or Dalmatian individuals. Production of icons at these levels seems to have led to a glut in the market, and in the following two decades there is much evidence that the Cretan trade declined significantly, as the European demand had been reduced.[21] But at the top end of the market Cretan icons were now the finest in theByzantine world.
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About 120 artists can be documented working in Candia (the Venetian name ofChandax, present dayHerakleion), in the period 1453–1526, and they had organized aSchuola di San Lucapainter's guild, based on the Italian model.[22] The blending of the Eastern and the Western traditions, and a relaxed interchange betweenGreek Orthodox andRoman Catholic rites led to the "Cretan Renaissance", a golden period for the arts on the island, where both literature and painting flourished. Some of these painters chose to continue theByzantine tradition of Constantinople, while others were influenced by the masters of the Venetian Renaissance, such asGiovanni Bellini andTitian.[23] Later,Paolo Veronese was to be a particular influence. Works by these masters or copies were in monasteries and churches of the island, while examples ofearly Netherlandish painting decorated the Catholic churches ofCandia or were to be found in the private collections of rich Venetians and Greeks.[24] In particular, Candia contained a large Franciscan church and a large Orthodox monastery, a daughter-house ofSaint Catherine's Monastery, both of which had strong collections from their respective traditions.
Contemporary documents refer to two styles in painting: themaniera greca (alla greca, in line with the Byzantine idiom) and themaniera Latina (alla Latina, in accordance with Western techniques), which artists knew and utilized according to the circumstances; as a result some kind of "eclecticism" appeared.[25] Indeed, sometimes both styles could be found in the same icon, the one right next to the other.[24] The fame of the most prominent Cretan painters spread throughoutGreece, theMediterranean and Europe. After the beginning of the 16th century, the Cretan artists once again had more commissions and their works were avidly sought, since they had started to use new motives and to adjust their iconography to the new trends of their era. To an extent quantity was probably replaced by quality compared with the previous century.
Apart from El Greco, the most famous Cretan artists during the century were Theophanis Strelitzas (Θεοφάνης Στρελίτζας), known asTheophanes the Cretan,Michael Damaskenos (Μιχαήλ Δαμασκηνός), andGeorgios Klontzas (Γεώργιος Κλόντζας).[23] Various members of the Lambardos family were also significant artists. Fortunately for art historians, many Cretan painters adopted the practice, perhaps as early as Western painters, of signing their work, which was not a traditional Byzantine practice.[26]
Theophanes the Cretan was a relatively conservative Cretan artist, whose first dated work is from 1527, and all of whose known works were done on the mainland or smaller islands. He was the most important Greek wall painter of his day, incorporating some Western iconographic and stylistic elements, but remaining essentially Byzantine in spirit.
The intellectual and artistic personality of the youngEl Greco was formed in this artistic environment. In 1563, at the age of twenty-two, El Greco was described in a document as a "master" ("maestro Domenigo"), meaning he was already an enrolled master of the local guild, presumably in charge of his own workshop.[27] He left for Venice a few years later, and never returned to Crete. HisDormition of the Virgin, of before 1567 intempera and gold on panel (61.4 × 45 cm, Holy Cathedral of the Dormition of the Virgin,Hermoupolis,Syros) was probably created near the end ofEl Greco's Cretan period. The painting combines post-Byzantine and ItalianMannerist stylistic and iconographic elements, and incorporates stylistic elements of the Cretan school.
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During the second half of the 16th century, many Cretan artists went toVenice, in the hope of gaining commissions and recognition. Unlike El Greco, the other Cretan painters who moved there did not substantially alter their styles or working methods. They simply incorporated more Italian motifs into a consistent Byzantine framework.Jonathan Brown provides a perceptive analysis of the ways that El Greco distinguished himself from other Cretan artists active in Venice, whileRichard Mann argues that "none of these painters accepted Renaissance ideas about the relevance of change to the creation of art works".[28] Michael Damaskenos returned to Crete after three years, and remained there for the rest of his life.
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The 1600s were characterized as the final period of the Cretan school. The movement featured many artists. Thelate Cretan school was characterized by prototypes set forth byMichael Damaskinos andGeorgios Klontzas. During that periodDamaskinos'sBeheading of John the Baptist and theStoning of Stephen were copied by countless Cretan artists. Some includedPhilotheos Skoufos.[7]Georgios Klontzas was another Cretan painter copied by many artists of the late Cretan school. Both hisIn Thee Rejoiceth and hisThe Last Judgment set the standard for painters of the late Cretan school.Theodore Poulakis was a prominent member of the late Cretan school. His version of Klontzas's painting was also calledIn Thee Rejoiceth. Both paintings are very similar. Many other painters also created their own version of Klontzas'sIn Thee Rejoiceth.[29]
The Last Judgement was covered by artists of the Greek-Italian Byzantine style. Klontzas created his own unique version of the painting. Klontzas'sLast Judgment was copied by artists of the late Cretan school. Notable versions includeMoskos'sLast Judgment andKavertzas'sLast Judgment.[30]
One of the most important artistic advancements of the late Cretan school was the work ofIeremias Palladas, a Sinaitic monk. His painting ofSaint Catherine of Alexandria, inSaint Catherine's Monastery, was copied by numerous contemporary artists and has served as a prototype for the depiction of the saint into modern times. Painters of the late Cretan school also created their own version of the Crucifixion. Notable version wereIoannis Moskos'sCrucifixion andGeorgios Markazinis'sCrucifixion.[31]
Another major representative of the Cretan school during the 17th century was famous Greek painterEmmanuel Tzanes, 130 of his works survived. Cretan icon painters continued to flourish, until the mid-century. Venetian art was not the only influence of the Cretan school. The late Cretan school was characterized by the influence offlemish engravings namely that of engraverJan Sadeler I.Sadeler had a workshop inVenice. His work influencedKonstantinos Tzanes andGeorgios Markazinis.
TheOttoman Turks occupied all the island except for Candia, which finally fell after twenty years of siege in 1669.[32] After the Ottoman occupation of Crete, the centre of Greek painting moved to theIonian Islands, which remained under Venetian rule until theNapoleonic Wars. A new artistic movement was created called theHeptanese school which was mostly influenced byWestern European artistic trends. Many Cretan artists migrated to the Heptanese orWestern Europe to enjoy the artistic freedom. Few artists continued to flourish inCrete after the occupation. Some of them wereMichael Prevelis,Ioannis Kornaros andGeorgios Kastrofylakas. A successive occupation of the Ionian islands by theFrench and theBritish allowed theHeptanese to remain the centre ofGreek art until the independence of Greece in 1830.
TheInstitute of Neohellenic Research published three encyclopaedias outlining the records of countless artists from the fall of the Byzantine Empire until the establishment of modern Greece. It is the first time in history Greek painters were listed on this scale and magnitude. The work resemblesGiorgio Vasari'sLives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects andBernardo de' Dominici'sVite dei Pittori, Scultori, ed Architetti Napolitani.[7]
The books feature thousands of paintings, frescos, and other artistic works. The encyclopaedias feature hundreds of painters. The three volumes are currently only available in Greek and entitledΈλληνες Ζωγράφοι μετά την Άλωση (1450–1830) orGreek Painters After the Fall (1450–1830). Eugenia Drakopoulou andManolis Hatzidakis were the major contributors. The volumes were published in 1987, 1997, and 2010. The books feature many artists from the Cretan school or Greek Renaissance period. Drakopoulou continues her research with the institute until today.[33]
The program's purpose is to build an archive of Greek painters after the fall of Constantinople (1450-1830). It features biographical details and an index of artistic works. TheInstitute of Neohellenic Research catalogues portable icons, church frescoes, and or any other artistic works. This is the first time in history a systematic record was accumulated in Greece representing the period.[34]
| Periods | Cretan School (Crete) | Heptanese School (Ionian Islands) | Epirus | Central Greece | Aegean Islands | Peloponnese | Misc. | Total |
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| 1454-1526 | 145 | 2 | 4 | - | - | 8 | 21 | 180 |
| 1527-1630 | 156 | 15 | 2 | 12 | 5 | 7 | 83 | 280 |
| 1631-1700 | 68 | 22 | 17 | 10 | 17 | 10 | 161 | 305 |
| 1700-1820 | 52 | 76 | 85 | 49 | 75 | 53 | 350 | 740 |
| Totals | 421 | 115 | 108 | 71 | 97 | 78 | 615 | 1505[4] |
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