| Total population | |
|---|---|
| Indeterminable | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
| New Orleans,Louisiana,Texas,Mississippi,Alabama,Maryland,Florida,Georgia,Memphis,Chicago,New York,Los Angeles andSan Francisco[1] | |
| Languages | |
| English,French,Spanish andLouisiana Creole (Kouri-Vini) | |
| Religion | |
| PredominantlyRoman Catholic,Protestant; some practiceVoodoo | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| African Americans,Cajuns,Louisiana Creole people,Isleños,Alabama Creole people,Québécois Peoples in Louisiana Acadians French Americans French-Canadian Americans Cajuns Native Americans Caribbean Americans Spanish Americans Portuguese Americans Afro Latino Cuban Americans Dominican Americans Stateside Puerto Ricans Canarian Americans Mexican Americans Italian Americans German Americans Irish Americans |
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TheCreoles of color are a multiracial ethnic group ofLouisiana Creoles that developed in the former French and Spanish colonies ofLouisiana (especially inNew Orleans),Mississippi, Alabama, andNorthwestern Florida, in what is now theUnited States. French colonists in Louisiana first used the term "Creole" to refer to people born in the colony, rather than in Europe, thus drawing a distinction between Old-World Europeans and Africans from their descendants born in the New World.[2][3] Today, many Creoles of color have assimilated into (and contributed to)Black American culture, while some retain their distinct identity as a subset within the broaderAfrican American ethnic group.[4]
New Orleans Creoles of color have been named as a "vital source of U.S. national-indigenous culture."[5] Creoles of color helped produce the historic cultural pattern of unique literature, art, music, architecture, and cuisine that is seen in New Orleans.[6] The first black poetry works in the United States, such asLes Cenelles, were created by New Orleans Creoles of color.[5] The centuries-oldNew Orleans Tribune was owned and operated by Creoles of color.[7]
After theAmerican Civil War, and Reconstruction, the city's black elite fought against informal segregation practices andJim Crow laws.[8] WithPlessy v. Ferguson and the beginning oflegal segregation in 1896, Creoles of color became disenfranchised in Louisiana and other southern states. Some moved to other states, sometimes passing into white groups aspassé blanc, or integrating into Black groups.[9] Creole of color artists, such asSidney Bechet andJelly Roll Morton, helped spreadJazz; andAllen Toussaint, the "beloved Creole gentleman", contributed to rhythm and blues.[10]
Creoles of color who moved to other states founded diaspora communities, which were called "Little New Orleans", such asLittle New Orleans, in Los Angeles andLittle New Orleans, in Galveston.[11][12]
Créole is derived from Latin and means to "create", and was first used in the "New World" by the Portuguese to describe local goods and products. The Spanish later used the term during colonial occupation to mean any native inhabitant of the New World.[13] French colonists used the termCréole to distinguish themselves from foreign-born settlers, and later as distinct fromAnglo-American settlers.
Créole referred to people born in Louisiana whose ancestors came from other places. Colonial documents show that the termCréole was used variously at different times to refer towhite people,mixed-race people, andblack people, both free-born and enslaved.[14] The addition of"-of color" was historically necessary when referring to Creoles of African and mixed ancestry, as the term "Creole" (Créole) did not convey any racial connotation until after the colonial period.[15]
During French colonization, social order was divided into three distinct categories: Creole aristocrats (grands habitants); a prosperous, educated group of multi-racial Creoles of European, African and Native American descent (bourgeoisie); and the far larger class of African slaves and Creole peasants (petits habitants). French Law regulated interracial conduct within the colony. An example of such laws are the LouisianaCode Noir.[16]
Though interracial relations were legally forbidden, or restricted, they were not uncommon. For a time, there were customs regulating relationships between white men and young women of African or mixed ancestry, whose mothers would negotiate the terms. These often included freedom for an enslaved woman and any children of the union, property settlement, and education.Mixed-race Creoles of color became identified as a distinct ethnic group,Gens de couleur libres (free persons of color), and were granted their free-person status by the Louisiana Supreme Court in 1810.[17]
Social markers of creole identity have included being ofCatholic faith, being a speaker of French and/or anotherFrench-derived language, having a strongwork ethic, and being afan of literature. Many may acquireLouisiana French orLouisiana Creole from familial exposure, but learnStandard French in school,[18] particularly in Louisiana. There has been arevival of French after its systematic suppression for a period by Anglo-Americans.[19] The approach to revitalization is somewhat controversial as manyFrench Louisianians argue the prioritization of Standard French education deprioritizes Louisianisms.[20]
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For many, being a descendant of theGens de couleur libres is an identity marker specific to Creoles of color.[18] Many Creoles of color were free-born, and their descendants often enjoyed many of the same privileges that whites did, including (but not limited to) property ownership, formal education, and service in the militia. During theantebellum period, their society was structured along class lines, and they tended to marry within their group. While it was not illegal, it was a social taboo for Creoles of color to marry slaves and it was a rare occurrence. Some of the wealthier and prosperous Creoles of color owned slaves themselves. Many did so to free and/or reunite with once-separated family members.[21] Other Creoles of color, such asThomy Lafon, used their social position to support the abolitionist cause.
Wealthy planterFrancis E. Dumas, another Creole of color, emancipated all of his slaves in 1863. He organized them into a company in the Second Regiment of theLouisiana Native Guards, in which he served as an officer.[22]
The first wave of creole migration out of Louisiana occurred between 1840 and 1890 with the majority of migrants fleeing to ethnic-dominant outskirts of larger U.S. cities and abroad where race was more fluid.[23]
The reclassification of Creoles of color as black prompted the second migratory wave of Creoles of color between 1920 and 1940.[24]
Creoles of color had been members of the militia for decades under both French and Spanish control of the colony ofLouisiana. For example, around 80 free Creoles of color were recruited into the militia that participated in theBattle of Baton Rouge in 1779.[25]
After the United States made theLouisiana Purchase in 1803 and acquired the large territory west of the Mississippi, the Creoles of color in New Orleans volunteered their services and pledged their loyalty to their new country. They also took an oath of loyalty toWilliam C. C. Claiborne, the Louisiana Territorial Governor appointed by PresidentThomas Jefferson.[26]
Months after the colony became part of the United States, Claiborne's administration was faced with a dilemma previously unknown in the U.S.; integration in the military by incorporating entire units of previously established "colored" militia.[27] In a February 20, 1804, letter, Secretary of WarHenry Dearborn wrote to Claiborne saying, "…it would be prudent not to increase the Corps, but to diminish, if it could be done without giving offense…"[28] A decade later, the militia of color that remained volunteered to take up arms when the British began landing troops on American soil outside of New Orleans in December 1814. This was the commencement of theBattle of New Orleans.[29]
A notable Creole family was that ofAndrea Dimitry. Dimitry was a Greek immigrant who married Marianne Céleste Dragon, a woman of African and Greek ancestry, around 1799. Their son, Creole author and educatorAlexander Dimitry, was the first person of color to represent the United States as Ambassador toCosta Rica andNicaragua. He was also the first superintendent of schools in Louisiana.
Andrea Dimitry's children were upper-class elite Creole. They were mostly educated atGeorgetown University. One of his daughters married into the English royalHouse of Stuart. Some Creoles served as prominent members of the Confederate Government during the American Civil War.[30][31][32]
With the advantage of having been better educated than the newfreedmen, many Creoles of color were active in the struggle forcivil rights and served in political office during Reconstruction, helping to bring freedmen into the political system.[33][34]
During lateReconstruction, white Democrats regained political control of state legislatures across the former Confederate states by intimidation of blacks and other Republicans at the polls. Through the late nineteenth century, they worked to impose white supremacy underJim Crow laws and customs. Theydisfranchised the majority of blacks, especially by creating barriers to voter registration through devices such as poll taxes, literacy tests, grandfather clauses, etc., stripping African Americans, including Creoles of color, of political power.
Creoles of color were among the African Americans who were limited when theU.S. Supreme Court ruled in the case ofPlessy v. Ferguson in 1896, deciding that "separate but equal" accommodations were constitutional. It permitted states to impose Jim Crow rules on federal railways and later interstate buses.
On June 14, 2013, Louisiana Governor Bobby Jindal signed into law Act 276, creating the "prestige" license plate stating "I'm Creole", in honor of the Creoles' contributions, culture, and heritage.[35]
It was common for wealthy francophone gens de couleur to study in France, with some remaining there for the rest of their lives.[36] Creoles of color were often homeschooled or enrolled in private schools.[37] These private schools were often financed and staffed by affluent Creoles of color.[38] For example,L'Institute Catholique was financed byMadame Marie Couvent with writersArmand Lanusse and Joanni Questy serving as educators.[36]
In 1850 it was determined that 80% of all gens de couleur libres were literate; a figure significantly higher than the white population of Louisiana at the time.[36]
During the antebellum period, well-educated francophone gens de couleur libres contributed extensively to literary collections, such asLes Cenelles. A significant portion of these works were dedicated to describing the conditions of their enslaved compatriots.[36] One example of such texts is the short story"Le Mulatre (The Mulatto)" byVictor Séjour, a Creole of color who lived and worked in Paris for most of his adult life. Other themes approached aspects of love, and religion, and many texts were likened to French romanticism.[36] In daily newspapers locally and abroad, pieces written by Creoles of color were prominent.[23] Even during the ban on racial commentary during the antebellum period, pieces written by these creoles reformulated existing French themes to subtly critique race relations in Louisiana. They still gained popularity among all readers.[23]
Some Creoles of color trained as classical musicians in 19th-century Louisiana. These musicians would often study with those associated with the French Opera House; some traveled toParis to complete their studies. Creole composers of that time are discussed inMusic and Some Highly Musical People byJames Monroe Trotter, andNos Hommes et Notre Histoire byRodolphe Lucien Desdunes.
Creoles of color from the New Orleans area were active in defining the earliest days of jazz.[39][40] Some of the most notable names:
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