County of Provence (oc) Comtat de Provença
Coat of arms
What remained of the County of Provence in 1789 before its disappearance in 1790
Status	County, fief of -Kingdom of Arles (947–1032) -Holy Roman Empire (1032–1481) -Kingdom of France (1481)
Capital	Aix
Other languages	Latin,Old Occitan,Occitan (expressed in the sub-dialects of theProvençal andAlpine groups),French (administration),Ligurian (some municipalities)
Demonym	Provençal
Establishment
• Boson II, Count of Arles	947
• Division between the county and marquisate of Provence	1125
• Passage at theMaison d'Anjou	1246
• Surrender of Nice to Savoy	1388
• Bequest toLouis XI of France	1481
• Perpetual union with theKingdom of France	1487
• Dissolution of the provincial institutions	1790

TheCounty of Provence was a largely autonomous medieval state that eventually became incorporated into theKingdom of France in 1481.^[1] For four centuries Provence was ruled bya series of counts that werevassals of theCarolingian Empire,Burgundy and finally theHoly Roman Empire, but in practice they were largely independent.

The County of Provence (inOld Occitan,Comtat de Provensa) was a formerfief east of the Rhône delta. A territory that emerged fromMiddle Francia, Provence was first organized as akingdom before gradually disintegrating due to feudal transfers and the civil war of theUnion of Aix. Its natural borders originally stretched south from theRhône toNice and north fromEmbrun to theVivarais, passing through theDrôme provençale [fr]. To the north, its boundaries extended as far asValence.

The county was annexed to France in 1487,^[2] and the king assumed the title "Count of Provence,Forcalquier [fr], and adjacent lands,"^[3] while appointingPalamède de Forbin as Grand Seneschal,Governor, and Lieutenant General of Provence. Provence retained its privileges, franchises, and freedoms.

In terms of taxation, Provence was apays de taille réelle (a land-tax-paying region); the don gratuit, the principaldirect tax, waslevied on property, except “noble property.”^[4] Regarding the salt tax (gabelle), Provence was apays de petite gabelle (small salt-tax region); salt was sold through five salt warehouses (inBerre,Toulon,Hyères,Fréjus, andCannes), along with additional storage depots.^[4]

The political structure of the County was reformed intodepartments in 1790, with legislative institutions transferred to the new capital, Paris. These events triggered federalist movements, which were repressed by the Convention’s centralist armies. During this time,Toulon andMarseille were renamedPort-la-Montagne^[5] andLa Ville-sans-nom (“The City Without a Name”), respectively.^[6]

The term “County of Provence” is attested as early as 1059.^{[7][N 1]} It derives from the title “Count of Provence,” which had been recorded since 972^{[10][N 2]} and became more commonly used from the 1020s–1030s onward.^[10]

Provence owes its name toRoman times: it was the first region ofTransalpine Gaul conquered between 58 and 51 BCE, and it became part of theRoman province (Provincia in Latin), withNarbonne as its capital—thus the nameGallia Narbonensis.^[13] TheLatinProvincia gave rise to theProvençal formProensa, which evolved intoProvensa, thenProuvença (inSimon-Jude Honnorat’s [fr] Provençal dictionary), and eventually Prouvenço under French influence in Provençal orthography.^[13] The spellingProuvènço was standardized by followers of Roumanille and the phonetic writing system known as mistralian or “modern.” Classicists later proposed returning to a more original form,Provensa, which appeared on several early 20th-century maps. However, the medieval formProvença was chosen, as it included the letter ç representing the etymological c of provincia. InThe Gallic Wars,Caesar mentions passing fromProvincia to Narbonnensis when crossing the Rhône,^[13] which likely explains why only the part of formerNarbonese Gaul east of the Rhône came to be known as Provence.

Historically, after the fall of theRoman Empire, “Provence” referred to the territory incorporated into theFrankish Kingdom in 536 and which became theMarquisate of Provence under the Kingdom of Burgundy-Provence in 947. It later became the County of Provence, with Arles, thenAix-en-Provence as its capitals (Arles suffering frequent attacks from the Count of Toulouse, Marquis of Provence).^[14][15] The borders fluctuated: in 1125, a treaty between Raymond Berenger andAlphonse Jourdain of Toulouse divided Provence. The County of Provence was tied to the Crown of Aragon until theTreaty of Meaux-Paris (1229). In 1388, after Queen Joanna’s death, her territories east of theVar were lost and ceded to theStates of Savoy in what became known as theDédition de Nice [fr], initially forming the Terres Neuves de Provence and later theCounty of Nice from 1526. A century later, in 1481, the County of Provence passed by succession to KingLouis XI of France and thus became aFrench province.^[16]

In theMiddle Ages, Provence included the southern Alps up to the left-bank tributaries of the Var. Parts of the Alpine regions were later separated: in the north, incorporated into theDauphiné province, and in the east, thePays Niçois^{[N 3]} (County of Nice) was granted to theHouse of Savoy^[17] in 1388 under the nameTerres Neuves de Provence. This Savoyard acquisition, at Provence’s expense, led to the creation of the County of Nice from 1526 to 1860.^[18]

During theFrench Revolution, Provence was divided into three departments:Basses-Alpes (renamedAlpes-de-Haute-Provence in 1970),Bouches-du-Rhône, andVar. The department ofVaucluse was created in 1793 from Avignon, theComtat Venaissin, and the northern part of Bouches-du-Rhône.^[19] TheAlpes-Maritimes were created in 1860 from theCounty of Nice and the eastern part of Var (Grasse district).^[20]

The southern part ofDrôme, though historically part of theDauphiné, is known asDrôme provençale. It is culturally close to Provence due to language, the fact that the bishopric ofSaint-Paul-Trois-Châteaux belonged to the metropolitan province of Provence (Archbishopric of Arles), the region ofBouchet was part of the Comtat Venaissin (Upper Comtat), and because Diois and Valentinois were vassals of the Marquis of Provence.^[21][15]

Over time, some authentically Provençal enclaves persisted in southern Drôme provençale, such as the County of Grignan^[22][23] (including the neighboring villages ofRéauville,^[22][24]Montjoyer,^[22][24]Salles,^[22][24]Colonzelle,^[22][23][24]Allan^[22][24]), the Provençal enclave ofLemps^[22][24] (written Lens in the 18th century), and the enclaves ofSaint-May,Rémuzat,Cornillon,^[22]Pommerol,^[22][24] andEygalayes.^[22][24] All these villages identify with Provence and have legitimate historical claims to that heritage.

The relief of Provence is generallyhilly, with impressivePrealps in the central part and, to the east and northeast, the Southern Alps, which reach their highest point at 3,412 meters at theAiguille de Chambeyron (Alpes-de-Haute-Provence). Further south lies thePelat massif, rising to 3,050 meters. On either side of the Var River, as well as east of the Verdon River, theCastellane Prealps, which peak atPuy de Rent [fr] at 1,996 meters, are composed of plateaus and mountain ranges oriented west to east.^[25] The High Provence Plains (Plans de Haute-Provence) separate the Prealps from the central hills (Valensole Plateau [fr],Canjuers Plain,Albion Plateau). To the west, theMont Ventoux massif, mostly located in theComtat Venaissin, extends into Provence, where it reaches an altitude of 1,600 meters in the Sault National Forest.^[25] TheSainte-Victoire Mountain, famous forCézanne’s paintings, dominates the Aix region (Pays d’Aix).^[26] In theBouches-du-Rhône department, theAlpilles are notable, while inVaucluse, at the edge of theComtat Venaissin, stands thePetit Luberon, Provençal in its eastern part, followed by theGrand Luberon, which reaches its highest point atMourre Nègre [fr]. Lastly, theSainte-Baume massif stretches from west to east, fromGémenos (Bouches-du-Rhône) toMazaugues (Var).^[27]

The coastlines fromMarseille toMenton are rather rugged (Calanques,Maures,Esterel,French Riviera).^[25] Erosion caused by violent summer storms can create deeply carved ravines.

The western part of the region is marked by theCrau Plain and theCamargue, formed by theRhône Delta, which are the only truly flat areas in the Provençal region.^[28]

• 
  Barcelonnette
• 
  Moustiers-Sainte-Marie, in theAlpes-de-Haute-Provence
• 
  Calanque de l'Oule in Marseille
• 
  Vallon de Mollières, Mercantour National Park in theAlpes-Maritimes

Among the waterways that cross Provence, the most significant is theRhône, which forms the western border of the region.^[25] The Rhône has the second-largest flow rate of all rivers flowing into the Mediterranean Sea, after theNile. As it flows into a tide-less sea, the river has formed a delta. Now embanked, this delta remains stable except during exceptional floods such as those in 1993, 1994, and 2003.^[29]

TheDurance is a tributary of the Rhône, with its source at approximately 2,390 meters above sea level, at the Pré de Gondran, on the slopes of theSommet des Anges [fr].^[30] The source lies near the former Gondran Fort, in the commune ofMontgenèvre,^[31] in theHautes-Alpes, near theItalian border. It flows into theRhône a few kilometers southwest ofAvignon, between theVaucluse andBouches-du-Rhône departments, serving as a border between the two. The Durance is known as a “capricious” river, once feared for both itsfloods (Provençal tradition says the three plagues of Provence were themistral wind, theDurance, and theParliament of Aix) and its low-water periods.^[32]

TheUbaye is a river that originates at theCol du Longet [fr] at an altitude of 2,655 meters, in theUbaye Valley. It passes throughBarcelonnette (a sub-prefecture ofAlpes-de-Haute-Provence) and feeds into theDurance in theSerre-Ponçon hydroelectric reservoir.^[33]

TheVerdon River, which rises at the foot of theTête de la Sestrière [fr] (altitude 2,572 meters), flows into theDurance after covering approximately 175 kilometers.^[34] It is especially renowned for itsgorges.^[25]

• 
  The Rhône atAvignon.
• 
  TheVerdon Gorge.

Many coastal rivers also exist in Provence, notably:

• The Var River, which originates at an altitude of 1,790 meters, south of theCayolle Pass, and travels 114 kilometers^[35] throughAlpes-Maritimes (it no longer crosses thedepartment that bears its name) before reaching theMediterranean Sea betweenNice andSaint-Laurent-du-Var. The Var River, whose flow is usually low (typically 50 to 100 m³/s), is considered the natural border between Provence and theCounty of Nice.^[36][37]
• TheArgens River crosses theVar department fromSeillons Source d’Argens toFréjus, where it flows into the Mediterranean.^[38]

Provence is a region with aMediterranean climate, featuring hot, dry summers. Winters are mild along the coast and generally humid in the east but are harsher in the north and northeast (Pelat,Ubaye,Digne Prealps), where the climate becomes alpine.^[39][25]

In its central and Mediterranean areas, the vegetation of Provence is characteristic of thegarrigue (scrubland), and the summer drought makes it particularly vulnerable towildfires.^[40] However, the region becomes greener and more humid in its more easterly and alpine parts.

The main wind is themistral, whose speed can exceed 110 km/h. It blows between 120 and 160 days per year, with gusts averaging 90 km/h.^[41] The following table (not included here) indicates the various mistral wind speeds recorded at the Orange and Carpentras-Serres stations in the southern Rhône Valley and its frequency during the year 2006. The "normal" corresponds to the average of the past 53 years for Orange’s meteorological records and 42 years for those of Carpentras.^[42]

Rhône Valley: cypress hedges against the mistral

Typical Provençal landscape, a field of lavender

La Courtade beach, on the island ofPorquerolles

The Provençal coastline was colonized by theGreeks: around 600 BCE, thePhocaeans settled inMarseille (Massalia in Greek;Massilia in Latin).^[43] They spread out to other areas, founding colonies inNice (Nikaia),Antibes (Antipolis),Hyères (Olbia),Six-Fours (Tauroeis),Arles,La Ciotat (Citharista),Brégançon (Pergantion),Monaco (Monoïkos),Athénopolis, and on certain parts of theLanguedoc coast such asAgde (Agathé) and south ofNîmes. To the north, they foundedLe Pègue nearValréas and stopped atLa Laupie, east of Montélimar. Before the Roman invasion and colonization, the region was mainly inhabited byLigurians, who later mixed with some Celtic soldiers and founded what is now referred to as the Celto-Ligurians^[44] (formerly Celto-Lygians).^[43][45]

Brief timeline

• 181 BCE: The Phocaean Massaliotes of the city ofMarseille and their Helleno-Celtic allies, theCavares from the Cavaillon–Avignon–Orange region, called onRome for help againstLigurian pirates.^[46]
• 154 BCE: Nice and Antibes were besieged by Ligurians from the Maritime Alps; a Roman expedition led by Opimius.^[46]
• 125/124 BCE: A coalition of Celto-Ligurian tribes (theSalyens), supported by theVocontii,Allobroges, andArverni, was defeated by ConsulMarcus Fulvius Flaccus, who crossed the Alps.^[46]
• 123 BCE: A new campaign ends with the destruction of theoppidum of Entremont.^[46]
• 123/122 BCE: Foundation ofAix-en-Provence to control the Salyens.^[46]
• 122 BCE: ProconsulDomitius Ahenobarbus crushes the Allobroges.
• 121 BCE: The Volcae, ruling a vast territory of 24 oppida, welcomed the Roman legions without resistance.^[46]
• 120 BCE: Ahenobarbus continued his campaign and is credited with the foundation and organization of the Provincia (Province).^[47]
• 117 BCE: Beginning of the construction of theVia Domitia (in honor of Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus) toward thePyrenees. It followed the route of an ancient Greek road (theHeraclean Way). Its construction symbolized Romanization and stimulated commercial exchange.^[48]
• 109–105 BCE: Incursions by Germanic tribes (Cimbri,Teutons, Tigurini,Ambrones).Marius defeated the Teutons atPourrières (near Aix-en-Provence) in 102 BCE and the Cimbri at Vercellae in 101 BCE.^[46]

• 
  The Antiques inSaint-Rémy-de-Provence
• 
  The Jardin des Vestiges inMarseille
• 
  The Cimiez Arena inNice
• 
  TheTremaie stele inBaux-de-Provence, depicting Marius, his wife and their fortune-teller Martha the Syrian

The lowerRhône Valley experienced various invasions. TheVisigoths andAlans plundered many cities and reached as far asOrange andAvignon. TheBurgundians settled in the region in 442 and choseVienne, which retained its prestige as a great Roman city, as their capital. Avignon marked the southernmost point of this kingdom.^[49] However, in 484, upon the death of the Visigoth kingEuric, the Burgundians crossed the Durance and seized all ofProvence, which they returned to the Visigoths in 501.^[50] In 508, theOstrogoths in turn seized Provence and established a duchy in the south of theBurgundian kingdom, dependent on their Italo-Dalmatian realm: the Duchy of Provence, which would later become Lower Provence or the County of Provence (the Burgundian part would become the Margraviate of Provence). In 536, the Franks took possession of the duchy, partially integrating it into theFrankish kingdom of Burgundy.Charles Martel fought against the patrician of Provence,Maurontus, an ally of the Moors of Gothia, and permanently brought Provence into theFrankish domain in 736.^[51]

In 843, theTreaty of Verdun granted Provence toLothair I. His son,Charles of Provence, made it theKingdom of Provence-Viennois or Lower Burgundy, a short-lived entity (855–863). Upon his death, Provence was incorporated into Italy and Viennois into the Lotharingia of Lothair II.^[52] After a period of unrest, Provence was once again included in the imperial domain by theTreaty of Meerssen, though briefly, as it returned, upon the death of EmperorLouis II in 875, to the King of West Francia,Charles the Bald, again for a short time.Boson of Provence, his brother-in-law, had himself proclaimed king of the second Kingdom of Provence in 879. Boson conflicted with theCarolingians.^[51] Boson's son,Louis, who became emperor, entrusted the governance of Provence toHugh of Arles, who in turn handed it over in 934 to Rudolph II, King of Transjurane Burgundy. The new entity became the second Kingdom of Burgundy-Provence, also known as the Kingdom of Arles. It lasted until 1032.^[53][52]

In the 880s, someSaracens from the Emirate ofAl-Andalus accidentally landed on the Var coast and established a base atFraxinet (Fraxinetum) or Freinet, traditionally located in theLa Garde-Freinet region, from which they launched raids, particularly in eastern Lower Provence.Hugh of Arles led two victorious attacks against them in 931 and 942 with the help of Byzantine ships, but without pursuing the advantage to expel them entirely.^[54]

In 947, theBosonidBoson,Count of Arles, was invested with Provence. Upon his death, his two sons, Guilhem known as the Liberator (William I) and Roubaud, jointly inherited the county, an indivision maintained by their descendants. The branch descending from Guilhem produced the Counts of Provence; the branch from Roubaud produced the Marquises of Provence.^[55]

The County of Provence was one of the great fiefs of theRodolphian Kingdom of Burgundy. In 948,Conrad the Peaceful, with the support ofOtto, King of Germany, reclaimed the territory south of Viennois to the Mediterranean Sea, which had been excluded from the 932 cession byHugh of Arles toRudolph II of Burgundy. To govern this territory, Conrad appointed counts who were loyal to him and chosen from outside Provence, since Conrad had no personal domain in Provence and thus only theoretical ownership, preferring to appoint counts who would remain faithful to him. He selected two brothers from the Mâcon region, Boson and Guillaume, sons of Rotbald or Roubaud,^{[citation needed]} with the former asCount of Arles and the latter as Count ofAvignon. It seems both brothers acted jointly, with the younger subordinate to the elder in managing the north, center, west, and southeast of the County of Provence. In eastern Provence, Conrad appointed a third count,Grifo or Griffon [fr], in the region of Apt and probably Glandèves and Senez, to administer Alpine Provence.^[56] This choice of two counts from the same family in Arles and Avignon may stem fromHugh of Arles having, under the reign ofLouis the Blind, unified the administration of the domain in Provence. To limit the risk of the County of Provence becoming independent of his sovereignty, Conrad divided authority by appointing two viscounts:^{[N 4]} one in Marseille and one in Cavaillon. The territories entrusted to the lords ofMarseille^{[citation needed]} and Cavaillon were separate from those of the counts of Arles, Avignon, and Apt.^[57] The viscounty of Apt quickly disappeared around 1017–1018. The appointment of distinct lords in Marseille deprived the counts of Arles and Avignon of easy access to the Mediterranean. This creation of the seigneury of Marseille is evidenced in a charter dated October 7, 948, where thebishop of Marseille,Honorat [fr],Arlulf [fr], andBoson are mentioned. The term “viscounty” for Marseille first appeared in 977. The autonomy of the viscounty of Marseille relative to the County of Provence only ended with the authoritative actions ofCharles of Anjou in 1252 and 1257.^[58] Conrad only visited the County of Provence in 963. The Kings of Burgundy seemed to have little interest in Provence. During the reigns of Conrad I and his sonRudolph III, four or five acts relating to Provence are known.^[59]

In 972, following the kidnapping ofMayeul, Abbot ofCluny, William I, and Roubaud, with the help ofProvençal lords and the Marquis of Turin, liberated Provence from the Saracens who had been pillaging the region from theMassif des Maures (aboveSaint-Tropez). TheBattle of Tourtour marked William's final victory over the Saracens. This military campaign against the Saracens, conducted withoutConrad's troops, was a means to bring Provence, its local aristocracy, and its urban and rural communities—who had until then always resisted feudal transformation and comital power—into line. It allowed William to acquire de facto suzerainty over Provence. He distributed reconquered lands to his vassals, arbitrated disputes, and thereby established Provençal feudalism.^[15] Named marquis in 975, William madeArles his capital.

• 
  Provence divided between theKingdom of Burgundy and theKingdom of Austrasia in 561.
• 
  TheKingdom of Provence in 855 when the kingdom of Emperor Lothair I was divided after theTreaty of Prüm
• 
  Provence around the year 1000, within theKingdom of Arles
• 
  The County of Provence within theKingdom of Arles in the year 1030

Upon the death of Boson II of Arles, his two sons—William known as the Liberator, andRotbold—shared the county jointly, a joint rule maintained by their descendants.^[55][60] The branch from Guilhem produced theCounts of Provence; the branch from Roubaud, from 1054 onward, produced theCounts of Forcalquier and theMarquises of Provence.^[61]

In 972, following the kidnapping ofMaïeul of Cluny, Abbot ofCluny, William I, and Roubaud, with the help of Provençal lords and the Marquis of Turin, freed Provence from theSaracens who, from their fortress ofFraxinet, had been pillaging the region.^[55][60] This military campaign, conducted without the troops ofConrad I of Burgundy, served to subdue Provence, its local aristocracy, and the urban and rural communities that had always resisted feudal transformation and comital authority. It enabled William to gain de facto suzerainty over Provence. He distributed reconquered lands to his vassals, settled disputes, and thus established Provençal feudalism. Named Marquis in 975, William madeArles his capital.^[62]

AsRudolph III of Burgundy had no offspring, he namedConrad II the Salian, Holy Roman Emperor, as his heir. Upon Rudolph's death in 1032, the Kingdom of Burgundy—and with it the Kingdom of Arles, which included the County of Provence—was annexed to theHoly Roman Empire.^[55] However, the suzerainty of the Holy Roman Emperor over Provence thereafter was only nominal and theoretical.^[62]

In 1019,Emma, Countess of Provence, marriedWilliam Taillefer,Count of Toulouse, transmitting the rights of Roubaud’s lineage to the House of Toulouse.^[55] The title of Marquis of Provence permanently passed to this house in 1093. In 1112,Douce of Provence, heir to the rights of Guilhem's line, marriedRaymond-Berenger III,Count of Barcelona, who becameRaymond-Berenger I of Provence. The Houses of Toulouse and Barcelona then entered into conflict over the marquisate.^[63] A treaty was concluded in 1125 between Raymond-Berenger and Alphonse-Jourdain of Toulouse: according to it, the County of Provence was divided into a marquisate north of theDurance—granted to the Counts of Toulouse—and a county to the south, granted to the Counts of Barcelona.^[55] Meanwhile, the northeastern part of the County of Provence had become de facto independent under the Count of Forcalquier. In 1193,Alfonso II of Provence married Gersande of Sabran, granddaughter of William II, Count of Forcalquier, which enabled the County of Provence to recover the southern part of the County of Forcalquier, while the northern part of this county, around Gap and Embrun, came under the suzerainty of the Dauphiné. This explains the presence of the dolphin emblem in the current coat of arms of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur region.^[63]

During this period, theCounty of Orange, a vassal of Provence, was elevated to a principality in 1181.^[64]

In 1245,Raymond-Bérenger V of Provence died. His four daughters married respectively:Marguerite toSaint Louis (King Louis IX),Sancie toRichard of Cornwall,Eleanor toHenry III, King of England, andBeatrice toCharles,Count of Anjou and Maine, brother of Saint Louis. It was the latter who inherited the two counties of Provence and Forcalquier, passing them on to thefirst Capetian House of Anjou.^[65] That is why the city of Forcalquier is nicknamed "the city of the four queens." Accumulating royal titles (Naples-Sicily,Jerusalem,Cyprus,Acre,Thessalonica, etc.), the counts began calling themselves kings.^[66]

However, the County of Provence-Forcalquier was fragmented. Following theTreaty of Meaux-Paris (1229), which marked the end of theAlbigensian Crusade, upon the death ofAlphonse of Poitiers in 1271, the marquisate passed to KingPhilip III of France, who ceded it in 1274 to PopeGregory X to become theComtat Venaissin.^[67]

In 1349, neighboring region ofDauphiné became a feudal possession of the French royalHouse of Valois, thus expanding French influence beyond the riverRhône. In order to affirm imperial authority over the oldKingdom of Burgundy (Arles), the emperorCharles IV came to Provence in 1365, and was crowned asking of Burgundy inArles. Since all of those regions were still considered as parts of the old Burgundian realm, within theHoly Roman Empire, the emperor appointedAmadeus VI, Count of Savoy as theimperial vicar of Burgundy (Arles). By 1378, new arrangements were made by appointing the young French princeCharles, lord of Dauphiné (future king Charles VI), as the imperial vicar of Burgundy (Arles), but only for his lifetime.^[68] Thus, the imperial influence on old Burgundian lands, including Porvence, was additionally weakened.

In 1380, queenJoanna I of Naples, who was also the ruling countess of Provence, adopted her distant cousinLouis I of Anjou, who was brother of the French kingCharles V. Thus in 1382, when she died, two pretenders claimed to inherite Provence, Louis of Anjou andCharles of Naples, from the cadet branch of the Capetian House of Anjou. The latter’s followers formed theUnion of Aix (1382–1387), opposing Louis of Anjou, who gained suporters in western regions of Provence. Contrary to that, eastern Provence (east of the Var), being the only region that remained loyal to Charles, received no effective assistance, and thus Charles allowed it to submit to a lord of its choosing, as long as it was not an enemy. This led, in 1388, to the separation of the city ofNice and its corresponding administrative division (the viguerie), the city ofPuget-Théniers, and the valleys of theTinée and theVésubie. Those cities nd regions formed the Terres Neuves de Provence (New Lands of Provence) and placed themselves under the protection of theHouse of Savoy — this is known as theDédition of Nice to Savoy [fr]. These lands became known as theCounty of Nice in 1526.^[69] The upper Ubaye valley, around Barcelonnette, also came under Savoyard suzerainty. France annexed the Barcelonnette region in 1713 under the Treaty of Utrecht, and Nice in 1860 by referendum.^[70]

In time, Louis of Anjou gained controll over the rest of Provence and thereby founded thesecond Capetian House of Anjou-Provence.^[70] This dynasty ended with the death ofCharles V of Anjou in 1481.^[70][69]

On December 10, 1481, CountCharles III of Provence dictated a will naming KingLouis XI of France as his universal heir.^[71] Charles III died the following day, December 11.^[71] On December 19, Louis XI instructedPalamède de Forbin to take possession of Provence.^[71] On December 29, the Estates (local representatives) met under the presidency of Pierre de La Jaille to acknowledge Charles III’s will.^[71] Forbin convened the Estates for January 15, 1482.^[71] The acts drafted and adopted from January 1482 to April 1487 confirmed the union of Provence and France “as one principal to another principal (...) without the County and the land of Provence being subordinate to the crown [of France].”^[72] In August 1486, the Estates requestedCharles VIII to proclaim the union of Provence with France as “definitive and eternal.”^[71] The King of France granted their request with royal letters in October 1486,^[71] and communicated to the Estates on April 9, 1487.^[71] Legally, it was only a personal union of crowns—the King of France acted in Provence solely as Count of Provence, and this remained so until the French Revolution. “May it please Your Majesty to style yourself [...] Count of Provence, [...] so that we are in no way obliged to obey any letter lacking this title.”^[71]

There is no clear date of the first use of the title of Count of Provence, although an independent state had been forming for some time. The first non-Carolingian ruler of Provence wasBoso who made himself king and was confirmed by theSynod of Mantaille, whoseBosonid descendants would rule Provence for a time.^[73] His sonLouis was a short lastingHoly Roman Emperor who despite being crowned in 901 was twice expelled from Italy and on the second time was blinded and returned to Provence which was now effectively governed by his cousin,Hugh of Arles. Hugh moved the capital of Provence from Vienne to Arles, and when Louis died took the title Duke of Provence. Hugh becameKing of Italy in 926 ruling both Italy and Provence for twenty years. He traded Provence toRudolph I of Burgundy in exchange for preserving his power in Italy. After Hugh's deathConrad of Burgundy became Count of Provence as King of Burgundy. He named a number of counts of Burgundian origin,^[74] one of whomRotbald founded a new dynasty who would control the county for the next century and a half.^[73]

Despite unsuccessful attempts by Louis and Hugh to expel them, partially because they had been occupied in Italy, the MuslimSaracens had established a base on the coast of Provence calledFraxinetum, near modern-daySaint-Tropez. From here they controlled the mountains of theMassif des Maures and the coast between modernFréjus andHyères,^[75] and raided throughout Provence getting as far east as the Italian Riviera and north to the alpine valleys ofPiedmont.^[76]

In 973, the Saracens capturedMaiolus, theabbot of the monastery atCluny, and held him for ransom. The ransom was paid and the abbot was released.Count William I, the Count of Arles, organized an army with the help of allied soldiers from Piedmont, and defeated the Saracens nearLa Garde-Freinet at theBattle of Tourtour. The Saracens who were not killed at the battle were forcibly baptized and made into slaves, and the remaining Saracens in Provence fled the region.^[62]

The expulsion of the Saracens in 973 became an epic event in the history and legends of Provence. William became known as "William the Liberator." He distributed the lands taken from the Saracens between Toulon and Nice to his entourage. His descendants became the recognized leaders of Provence, above the other counts of the region.^[76]

During this long period of wars and banditry in Provence, the population retreated to walled cities, maritime trade was rare, and little new art or architecture, other than fortification, was created. TheProvençal language was formed, closer to Latin than the French spoken in northern France. In the 11th century Provençal terms began to appear, mixed with Latin, in documents.^[77]

The German EmperorConrad the Salic forced the childlessKing of Burgundy,Rudolph III, to name him as successor which in 1032 led to Provence becoming a fiefdom of theHoly Roman Empire, which it remained until 1246.^[78]

There was a tradition of shared inheritance practiced by the family of the Counts, leading to two lines each using the title of Count. In 1112, a descendant of Count William I,Douce I, Countess of Provence, married the CatalanRamon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona, who as a result became Raymond Berenguer I, Count of Provence. He ruled Provence until 1131, and his descendants, theCatalan Dynasty, ruled Provence until 1246.^[78]

The claim of the other line, sometimes using the title ofMargraves of Provence, passed by marriage toWilliam III, Count of Toulouse. This led to a long-standing Toulouse claim to the county, finally resolved by partition in 1125. Provence north and west of theDurance went to theCount of Toulouse, while the lands between theDurance and the Mediterranean, and from the Rhône to the Alps, stayed with the Counts of Provence. The capital of Provence was moved from Arles to Aix-en-Provence, and later toBrignoles.^[79] A shorter lasting partition in the next generation, between the County of Provence and theCounty of Forcalquier. was ended by an intra-dynastic marriage in 1193.

Following theCrusades, international commerce began to resume in the ports of the Mediterranean and along the Rhône. The port of Marseille flourished again.^[80] A new city built on the Petit-Rhône,Saint-Gilles, became a transit point for cloth fromFlanders and spices and the products of the eastern Mediterranean.Tarascon andAvignon on the Rhône became important trading ports.^[81]

During the 12th century some of the cities of Provence became virtually autonomous. They were ruled by consuls, formally under the Counts of Provence but with considerable autonomy. Consulates existed in Avignon in 1229, 1131 in Arles, between 1140 and 1150 in Tarascon, Nice and Grasse, and 1178 in Marseille. Marseille went farther than the others, establishing aconfrerie or charitable and religious organization of the one hundred leaders of the professions, crafts and businesses in the city, which drew up a code of justice and municipal regulations. Several Provençal cities directly negotiated commercial treaties with the republics ofPisa andGenoa in Italy. Other cities, however, such as Aix, Toulon, Hyères, Digne, Cavaillon and Carpentras, remained under the authority of the Counts. In the 13th century the counts of Provence suppressed most of the consulates, but the seeds of civil liberty and democracy had been planted in the cities.^[82]

In the early 13th century theAlbigensian crusade in neighboringLanguedoc upset the existing order in Provence.^[83]Pope Innocent III sent missionaries and then soldiers to suppress theCathar religious movement inLanguedoc.^[84] The Pope accusedRaymond VI, Count of Toulouse of supporting the Cathars, excommunicated him, and invited an army of French knights on acrusade to cleanse the south of France of theheresy. A war began in Provence between the French knights and the soldiers of Raymond VI and his sonRaymond VII.^[85]

Soldiers from Tarascon, Marseille and Avignon joined the army of the Counts of Provence to fight the French. The French commander,Simon de Montfort, was killed at the siege of Toulouse in 1218. Then Raymond VI died in 1222, and a dispute over his lands in Provence began. KingLouis VIII of France decided to intervene, and a French royal army marched down the valley of the Rhône and laid siege to Avignon. The city held out for three months but was finally forced by hunger to surrender. Avignon was forced to destroy itscity walls and accept a French castle on the other side of the river, and by a treaty signed in Paris on April 12, 1229, the part of Provence west of the Rhône that had belonged to the Counts of Toulouse became part of France.^[86]

Beginning in 1220, Provence east of the Rhône had a new ruler,Ramon Berenguer IV, of the Catalan dynasty. He was the first Count of Provence to actually reside in Provence permanently, usually living with his court in Aix.^[87] He launched a military campaign to impose his authority over the cities of Provence, ending the independence ofGrasse and Tarascon, occupying Nice, which had tried to ally with Genoa; and founding a new town,Barcelonette, in the far east of Provence, near the Italian border.^[88]

The ambitions of Ramon Berenguer were energetically resisted by the new Count of Toulouse, Raymond VII, who had lost most of his own territory to France.^[89] Raymond VII became an ally of Marseille and Avignon in their fight against Ramon Berenguer. In 1232 his army devastated the territories of Ramon Berenguer around Tarascon and Arles.^[90][91]

Ramon Berenguer responded to this attack by strengthening his alliance with France; he married his daughter, Marguerite, to KingLouis IX of France, and appealed toFrederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, for support. In exchange for his support, Frederic demanded that the cities of Arles and Avignon be governed by the Holy Roman Empire.^[92] A prolonged struggle took place between Raymond VII and his allies, the cities of Marseille and Avignon, against Ramon Berenguer for authority in Provence. Arles wasblockaded and all traffic on the Rhône stopped.^[93]

The French army finally intervened to help Ramon Berenguer, the French king's father-in-law. Raymond VII was forced to abandon his quest, and Ramon Berenguer was able to appoint his own candidate as bishop of Avignon and to subdue the rest of eastern Provence. When Ramon Berenguer died in 1245, not quite forty years old, he controlled all of Provence between the Rhône and Italian border except the rebellious city of Marseille.^[94]

Ramon Berenguer had four daughters, but no sons. After his death his youngest daughter and heiress,Beatrice, marriedCharles, Count of Anjou, the youngest son ofLouis VIII of France. Provence's fortunes became even more closely tied to theAngevin dynasty.^[95]

The 15th century saw a series of wars between the Kings ofAragon and the Counts of Provence.^[96] In 1423 the army ofAlphonse V of Aragon captured Marseille, and in 1443 captured Naples and forced its ruler, KingRené I of Naples, to flee. He eventually settled in one of his remaining territories, Provence.^[97]

History and legend has given René the title "Good King René of Provence", though he only lived in Provence in the last ten years of his life, from 1470 to 1480, and his political policies of territorial expansion were costly and unsuccessful.^[98] Provence benefitted from population growth and economic expansion, and René was a generous patron of the arts, sponsoring paintersNicolas Froment,Louis Bréa, and other masters. He also completed one of the finest castles in Provence atTarascon, on the Rhône.^[99][100]

When René died in 1480, his title passed to his nephewCharles du Maine.^[101] One year later, in 1481, when Charles died, the title passed toLouis XI of France. Provence waslegally incorporated into the French royal domain in 1486.^[102]

The names below represent the names of the cities inProvençal, in both the classical (original and traditional) and the so-called Mistralian (modernized and French-influenced) orthographies. For the communes with only one spelling shown, it means that the spelling is the same in both writing systems, and thus the older or classically inspired form has been preserved in the phonetic (Mistralian) version.^[103]

The following translations come fromFrédéric Mistral’s dictionary Lou Trésor dóu Felibrige^[103] and include the names of some major present-day towns in the County of Provence, showing both their natural evolution and the influence of French—with the original -o sound, which was pronounced similarly to -ou, or the final -a becoming almost silent and resembling an -o, -e, or sometimes remaining -a depending on the region. The traditional -nh became -gn, while it remained -nh in Portuguese, which adopted the spelling used by troubadours.^[103]

The translations in the Mistralian spelling are complemented by those in the classical spelling, which is inspired by the original orthography (before the strong influence of French) to give an authentic image to the language, while generally preserving the modern evolutions of the language such as the consonantal vocalization (consonant becoming a vowel) of -l into -u, although this has been preserved in Languedoc (or Occitania).^[104]

Regardless of the spelling, the pronunciation is the same.^[104]

These classical translations come from the Provençal-French Dictionary (Diccionari provençau-francés) of the Creo-Provença association (supported by theProvence region, the General Council ofBouches-du-Rhône, the city ofAix-en-Provence, the city ofCannes, the city ofLe Cannet, and the city ofMougins).^[104]

The historical language of Provence isOccitan (revival of the term langue d’Oc by Occitanists replacing the termProvençal language (used for the entire South) around 1930^[105]) in its dialectal grouping called Provençal.^[106] Several varieties of Provençal are distinguished: Maritime (also called Marseillais or Central), Rhodanian,Alpine (also called Gavot), and Niçard. The Alpine Provençal or Gavot was also considered a variant of Provençal. Niçard derives from medieval Provençal and has received some Northern Italian influences.

Frédéric Mistral’s point of view on thelangue d’Oc, called in his time the Provençal language and today more broadly Occitan: “The main dialects of modern langue d’Oc are: Provençal, Languedocian, Gascon, Aquitanian, Limousin, Auvergnat, and Dauphinois. Provençal includes the sub-dialects: Rhodanian, Marseillais (former name for Maritime), Alpine, and Niçard.”^[105]

Provence also included enclaves ofLigurian-speaking populations, whose dialect was calledFigoun inBiot,Vallauris,Mouans-Sartoux,Mons, andEscragnolles.^[107] TheMentonasque dialect, spoken inMenton, is a transitional variety with Ligurian. In the Roya Valley, on the eastern borders of theAlpes-Maritimes, theRoyasc and its variantBrigasc are used; both are transitional Ligurian dialects influenced byVivaro-Alpine Occitan.

Thetroubadours directly descended from the Provençal movement includeRaimbaut d'Orange,Raimbaut de Vaqueiras,Albertet de Sisteron,Bertran de Lamanon,Folquet de Marseille,Blacatz, andBeatritz de Dia.^{[108][109][110]}

• Robert Ruffi [fr]^[111]

• Jean-Étienne-Marie Portalis (° 1746 - † 1807) - Jurist, lawyer, politician, co-editor of the Civil Code, defender of the Provençal nation in the Revolution^[112]

• André Campra (° 1660 - † 1744) - Composer^[113]
• Jean Gilles (° 1668 - † 1705) - Composer^[114]
• Jean-Joseph Mouret (° 1682 – † 1738) - Composer^[115]
• Antoine Peyrol [fr] (° 1709 - † 1779) - Composer of Christmas music^[116]
• Jean-Claude Trial (° 1732 – † 1771) - Violinist and composer^[117]
• Antoine Trial (° 1737 – † 1795) - Singer and actor^[118]

• Enguerrand Quarton (15th century)^[119]
• Barthélemy d'Eyck (active between 1444 and 1470)^[120]
• Nicolas Froment (c. 1430/1435 - c. 1486)^[121]
• Josse Lieferinxe (active between 1493 and 1503–08)^[122]
• Louis Parrocel [fr] (1634 - 1694)
• Joseph Parrocel (1646 - 1704)^[123]
• Nicolas Mignard (1606 - 1668)^[124]
• Jacques-Ignace Parrocel [fr] (1667 - 1722)^[125]
• François van Loo [fr] (1708 - 1732)^[126]
• Pierre Parrocel (1670 - 1739)^[127]
• Jean-Baptiste van Loo (1684 - 1745)^[128]
• Carle van Loo (1705 - 1765)^[129]
• Louis-Michel van Loo (1707 - 1771)^[130]
• Étienne Parrocel (1696 - 1776)^[131]
• Michel-François Dandré-Bardon (1700 - 1783)^[132]
• Claude Joseph Vernet (1714 - 1789)^[133]
• Philippe Sauvan [fr] (1697 - 1792)

• Antoine Le Moiturier (° 1425 – † 1493) - Sculptor^[134]
• François de Royers de la Valfrenière [fr] (° 1575 – † 1667) - Architect^[135]
• Pierre Puget (° October 16, 1620 – † December 2, 1694)^[136]
• Jean Péru [fr] (° 1650 – † 1723) - Architect and sculptor
• Pierre II Mignard (° 1640 – † 1725) - Painter and architect, member of the Académie royale d'architecture^[137]
• Pierre Bondon [fr] (° 1716 – † 1781) - Sculptor and architect^[138]
• François II Franque [fr] (° 1710 - † 1793) - Architect, son ofJean-Baptiste Franque^[139]

The "ancient" arms of Provence are first recorded during the reign ofRaymond Berenger V of Provence (1209–1245), grandson ofAlfonso II of Aragon.^[140]

There are several theories regarding the origin of this coat of arms. French heraldistMichel Pastoureau suggests that the arms originated in Provence, tracing them to the Kingdom of Arles. He believes that the Counts of Barcelona, while governing Provence, brought these arms to Catalonia.^{[141][142][143]} However, heraldist Faustino Menéndez Pidal de Navascués challenges this theory. He contends that the coat of arms was not inherited byRamon Berenguer IV as Count of Barcelona but was instead a 16th-century attribution that linked the Counts of Provence to the Royal House of Aragon. According to Menéndez Pidal, the arms can be traced toAlfonso II of Aragon, the grandfather of Raymond Berenger V.^[144][145]

• List of rulers of Provence
• List of Provençal royal consorts
• History of Provence
• Félibrige
• Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur
• County of Nice

• Authority records:VIAF •BnF •IdRef

• Counties of the Holy Roman Empire
• History of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur
• Rhône
• Counts
• States and territories disestablished in the 1480s
• County of Provence

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