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By level |
Local government is a generic term for the lowest tiers ofgovernance orpublic administration within a particularsovereign state.
Local governments typically constitute a subdivision of a higher-level political or administrative unit, such as a nation or state. Local governments generally act within the powers and functions assigned to them by law or directives of a higher level of government. Infederal states, local government generally comprises a third or fourth level of government, whereas inunitary states, local government usually occupies the second or third level of government.
The institutions of local government vary greatly between countries, and even where similar arrangements exist, country-specific terminology often varies. Common designated names for different types of local government entities includecounties,districts,cities,townships,towns,boroughs,parishes,municipalities,municipal corporations,shires,villages, andlocal government areas. The same term may be used in different countries to refer to local governance institutions with vastly different institutional features, powers, or functions.
In addition to general-purpose local governments, some countries have special-purpose local governments (special districts), such as independentschool districts, electedwater boards, orlocal service districts.
Although there is no single, commonly accepted definition of the term, the most precise definition of local governments is provided by theInternational Monetary Fund (IMF), which divides the general government sector into three sub-sectors (central,state, and local government)[1] and defines local governments as "institutional units whose fiscal, legislative, and executive authority extends over the smallest geographical areas distinguished for administrative and political purposes."[2]
The IMF further notes that local governments "typically provide a wide range of services to local residents," while "the scope of their authority is generally much less than that of central government or state governments, and they may or may not be entitled to levy taxes." They are often heavily dependent on grants (transfers) from higher levels of government, and they may also act, to some extent, as agents of central or regional governments. They should also be able to appoint their own officers, independently of external administrative control. Even when local governments act as agents of central or state governments to some extent, they can be treated as a separate level of government, provided they are also able to raise and spend some funds on their own initiative and own responsibility."[2]
Other definitions for local governments are less prescriptive and emphasize the political or representative nature of local governments. For instance, OECD defines local governments as "decentralized entities whose governance bodies are elected through universal suffrage and which has general responsibilities and some autonomy with respect to budget, staff and assets."[3] The Local Public Sector Alliance defines local government institutions as "a corporate body (or institutional unit) that performs one or more public sector functions within a [local] jurisdiction that has adequate political, administrative, and fiscal autonomy and authority to respond to the needs and priorities of its constituents".[4]
Questions regarding the empowerment of local government institutions, the structure and nature of local political leadership, and the extent of localself-governance andmunicipal autonomy are key questions of public administration and governance.Local elections are held in many countries.
Egypt has acentralised system of local government officially called local administration as it is a branch of theExecutive.[5] The country is divided into 27governorates (محافظةmuḥāfaẓah;Egyptian Arabic pronunciation:[moˈħɑfzˤɑ];genitive case:muḥāfaẓat [moˈħɑfzˤet]; plural:محافظاتmuḥāfaẓāt [moħɑfˈzˤɑːt]),[6] the top tier of local administration. A governorate is administered by agovernor, who is appointed by thePresident of Egypt and serves at the president's discretion.
Governors have the civilian rank of minister and report directly to theprime minister, who chairs the Board of Governors and meets with them on a regular basis.[7] TheMinister of Local Development coordinates the governors and their governorate's budgets.[8]
In recent years[when?],Mali has undertaken an ambitious decentralization program, which involves the capital district ofBamako, seven regions subdivided into 46 cercles, and 682 rural community districts (communes). The state retains an advisory role in administrative and fiscal matters, and it provides technical support, coordination, and legal recourse to these levels. Opportunities for direct political participation, and increased local responsibility for development have been improved.[citation needed]
In August–September 1998, elections were held for urban council members, who subsequently elected their mayors. In May/June 1999, citizens of the communes elected their communal council members for the first time. Female voter turnout was about 70% of the total, and observers considered the process open and transparent. With mayors, councils, and boards in place at the local level, newly elected officials, civil society organizations, decentralized technical services, private sector interests, other communes, and donor groups began partnering to further development.[citation needed]
Eventually, the cercles will be reinstituted (formerly grouping arrondissements) with a legal and financial basis of their own. Their councils will be chosen by and from members of the communal councils. The regions, at the highest decentralized level, will have a similar legal and financial autonomy, and will comprise a number of cercles within their geographical boundaries. Mali needs to build capacity at these levels, especially to mobilize and manage financial resources.[citation needed]
Nigeria as afederal republic operates three tiers of government: federal (or central), statesand local government. The country'sconstitution provides for each local government (which exists in a single tier countrywide), and its development areas and autonomous communities created by individual state legislation to havedemocratically elected local government heads. There is a ministry (or bureau) of local government and chieftaincy affairs in each state charged with the responsibility of administration at that level. Nigeria has a total of 774Local Government Areas(LGAs).[9]
South Africa has a two-tiered local government system comprising localmunicipalities which fall into district municipalities, andmetropolitan municipalities which span both tiers of local government.
Afghanistan was traditionally divided into provinces governed by centrally appointed governors with considerable autonomy in local affairs. There are currently 34 provinces. During the Soviet occupation and the development of country-wide resistance, local areas came increasingly under the control ofmujaheddin groups that were largely independent of any higher authority; local commanders, in some instances, asserted a measure of independence also from the mujaheddin leadership in Pakistan, establishing their own systems of local government, collecting revenues, running educational and other facilities, and even engaging in local negotiations. Mujaheddin groups retained links with the Peshawar parties to ensure access to weapons that were doled out to the parties by the government of Pakistan for distribution to fighters inside Afghanistan.[10]
The Taliban set up a shura (assembly), made up of senior Taliban members and important tribal from the area. Each shura made laws and collected taxes locally. The Taliban set up a provisional government for the whole of Afghanistan, but it did not exercise central control over the local shuras.[11]
The process of setting up the transitional government in June 2002 by the Loya Jirga took many steps involving local government. First, at the district and municipal level, traditional shura councils met to pick electors—persons who cast ballots for Loya Jirga delegates. Each district or municipality had to choose a predetermined number of electors, based on the size of its population. The electors then traveled to regional centers and cast ballots, to choose from amongst themselves a smaller number of loya jirga delegates— according to allotted numbers assigned to each district. The delegates then took part in the Loya Jirga.[12]
The warlords who rule various regions of the country exert local control. The transitional government is attempting to integrate local governing authorities with the central government, but it lacks the loyalty from the warlords necessary to its governing authority. More traditional elements of political authority—such as Sufi networks, royal lineage, clan strength, age-based wisdom, and the like—still exist and play a role in Afghan society. Karzai is relying on these traditional sources of authority in his challenge to the warlords and older Islamist leaders. The deep ethnic, linguistic, sectarian, tribal, racial, and regional cleavages present in the country create what is called "Qawm" identity, emphasizing the local over higher-order formations. Qawm refers to the group to which the individual considers himself to belong, whether a subtribe, village, valley, or neighborhood. Local governing authority relies upon these forms of identity and loyalty.[13]
Armenia is subdivided into elevenadministrative divisions. Of these, ten are provinces, known asmarzer (մարզեր) or in the singular formmarz (մարզ) inArmenian.
Azerbaijan is administratively divided into the following subdivisions: 67 districts (rayonlar), 11 cities (şəhərlər). TheNakhchivan Autonomous Republic is a territorialexlcave, which itself contains: 7 districts and a city. The rayons are further divided into municipalities. (Bələdiyyə).
Bangladesh is divided into eight administrative divisions,[14] each named after their respective divisional headquarters:Barisal,Chittagong,Dhaka,Khulna,Rajshahi,Sylhet,Rangpur andMymensingh Division.
Divisions are divided intozila. There are 64 zila in Bangladesh, each further divided intoupazila orthana. The area within each police station, except for those in metropolitan areas, is divided into severalunions, with each union consisting of multiple villages. In the metropolitan areas, police stations are divided into wards, which are further divided intomahallas. There are no directly elected officials at the divisional or district levels, although elected chairs of subdistricts also sit on district councils.[15] Direct elections are held for each union (or ward), electing a chairperson and a number of members. In 1997, a parliamentary act was passed to reserve three seats (out of 12) in every union for female candidates.[16][17]
Dhaka is the capital and largest city of Bangladesh. The cities with a city corporation, having mayoral elections, include Dhaka South, Dhaka North, Chittagong, Khulna, Sylhet, Rajshahi, Barisal, Rangpur, Comilla and Gazipur. Other major cities, these and other municipalities electing a mayor and councilors for each ward, include Mymensingh, Gopalganj, Jessore, Bogra, Dinajpur, Saidapur, Narayanganj, Naogaon and Rangamati. Both the municipal heads are elected for a span of five years.
Theadministrative divisions of Brunei mainly consist ofdaerah,mukim andkampung orkampong. They are organised hierarchically, withdaerah being the first level andkampong the third level. All the administrative divisions are under direct governance of the government through the Ministry of Home Affairs. There are four districts in Brunei:Brunei-Muara,Belait,Tutong andTemburong. The administrative level of mukim lies below the district. At present, there are 38 mukims, with 17 in Brunei-Muara, 8 in Tutong, 8 in Belait and 5 in Temburong District. A mukim is headed by a penghulu. A village (Malay: kampung or kampong) is the lowest administrative level in Brunei and headed by a ketua kampong or village head. Its population varies from a few hundreds to tens of thousands.
The subdivisions of Georgia areautonomous republics (Georgian:ავტონომიური რესპუბლიკა,avtonomiuri respublika), regions (მხარე,mkhare), andmunicipalities (მუნიციპალიტეტი,munits'ipaliteti).
Local government is the third tier of government inIndia, afterUnion Government andState Government. The urban local bodies (municipalities) are for urban governance and panchayati raj institutions (panchayats) for rural governance.
The Urban Local Bodies (ULBs):[18] areMunicipal Corporation,Municipal Council (municipality) andTown panchayat (notified area council).
The Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs), knowns as "Panchayats" are a three-tier system of local self-government in rural areas in India:District Panchayat (district level),Block Panchayat (block level) andVillage Panchayat (village level).
TheIsraeli Ministry of Interior recognizes four types of local government in Israel:[citation needed]
Since theMeiji restoration,Japan has had a local government system based onprefectures. The national government oversees much of the country. Municipal governments were historical villages. Now mergers are common for cost effective administration. There are 47prefectures. They have two main responsibilities. One is mediation between national and municipal governments. The other is area wide administration.
Local government is the lowest level in the system of government inMalaysia—after federal and state. Councillors are not elected in local-level elections which have been abolished in 1976, but rather appointed bystate governments.[19] It has the power to collect taxes (in the form of assessment tax), to create laws and rules (in the form of by-laws) and grants licenses and permits for any trade in its area of jurisdiction, in addition to providing basic amenities, collecting and managing waste and garbage as well as planning and developing the area under its jurisdiction.
Gaunpalika (Rural Council) andNagarpalika (Municipal council) are the local level divisions inNepal. Which is ruled by third level of government after Federal and Provincial government. In Nepal there are total 753 local levels government (including 6Metropolises, 11Sub-metropolises, 276Municipalities and 460Gaunpalikas). And there are total 6,743 wards are formed under these 753 local levels. These local government are ruled by local leaders and the Mayor is the supreme of each local government which is elected every 5 (Five) year by local public.
Local government is the third tier of government inPakistan, afterFederal Government and Provincial Government. There are three types of administrative unit of local government in Pakistan areDistrict Government Administrations, Town Municipal Administrations andUnion Council Administrations
There are over five thousand local governments in Pakistan. Since 2001, these have been led by democratically elected local councils, each headed by a Nazim (the word means "supervisor" in Urdu, but is sometimes translated as Mayor). Some districts, incorporating large metropolitan areas, are called City Districts. A City District may contain subdivisions called Towns and Union Councils. Council elections are held every four years. District Governments also include a District Coordination Officer (DCO), who is a civil servant in-charge of all devolved departments. Currently, the Powers of Nazim are also held by the DCO.
Local government in thePalestinian National Authority-controlled areas are divided into three main groups: Municipal councils, village council and local development committees.
TheLocal Government Code of 1991 provides for the three levels of Local Government Units or LGUs in thePhilippines: (1) theprovince (2)city andmunicipality, and (3) thebarangay.[20] The country remains a unitary state and the National Government continues to have strong influence over local government units.
A province is led by a governor along with theSangguniang Panlalawigan (Provincial Council) composed of board members. A mayor leads a city or municipality while theSangguniang Panlungsod (City Council) and theSangguniang Bayan (Municipal Council) constitute the legislative branches of a city and municipality, respectively. A barangay is headed by theBarangay Captain and theBarangay Council. Barangays can be further divided intopuroks andsitios but their leadership is unelected.
The 1987 Philippine Constitution also provides for the existence of autonomous regions. TheBangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM) is the only autonomous region in the Philippines. There was an attempt to institute an autonomous region in theCordillera, but that failed and instead theCordillera Administrative Region (CAR) was established.
Local governments have limited taxing authority. Most of their funds come from the national government via theInternal Revenue Allotment
There are three levels of local government in the Kingdom ofSaudi Arabia: the city council, the municipal council and the municipality.
The city council is the highest level of local government. The municipal councils began in 2005 and is the second level of local government. The municipality is the third level of local government. There are 178 municipalities across the kingdom. The first began in Jeddah during the Othmanic period. Each municipality is run by its city's mayor. Collectively, the kingdom's municipalities make up the Ministry of Municipality and Rural Affairs (MoMRA).
TheRepublic of China government inTaiwan consists ofspecial municipality governments,provincial city governments andcounty governments for their local governments. They also have councils in each of those three local government levels.
Turkey has two levels of local government; provinces (Turkish: iller) and districts (Turkish: ilçeler).
The territory of Turkey is subdivided into 81 provinces for administrative purposes. The provinces are organized into 7 regions for census purposes; however, they do not represent an administrative structure. Each province is divided into districts, for a total of 957 districts.
Vietnam has 3 levels of local government:
Each level has a People's Committee (executive – up to third tier), a People's Council (legislative – up to third tier) and a People's Court (judiciary – up to second tier).
Sinceits Declaration of Independence from theOttoman Empire in 1912,Albania has reformedits internal divisions 21 times. Before the implementation of the1998 Constitution, the primary division was into about 36districts (Albanian:rrethe), whose number, size, and importance varied over time. Following their abolishment in the year 2000, thecounties were divided intourban (bashki) andrural municipalities (komuna)[21] until the2015 elections, when they were replaced by the current system.
Presently, Albania has 3–4 levels of local government :
The prefects who oversee each county are appointed by thecentral government, but the mayors of the municipalities and the local government councils areelected democratically.
Andorra is formed by sevenparishes (parròquies, singular – parròquia);Andorra la Vella,Canillo,Encamp,La Massana,Escaldes-Engordany,Ordino,Sant Julià de Lòria.
Some parishes have a further territorial subdivision. Ordino, La Massana and Sant Julià de Lòria are subdivided intoquarts (quarters), while Canillo is subdivided into 10veïnats (neighborhoods). Those mostly coincide with villages, which are found in all parishes. Each parish has its own elected mayor who is the nominal head of the local government known as acomú in Catalan.
At the top level of administration,Belarus is divided into sixregions and the city ofMinsk, which has a special status being the capital of Belarus. Minsk is also the capital ofMinsk Region.
At the second level, the regions are divided intoraions ("districts").
Since the 1880s, the number of territorial management units inBulgaria has varied from seven to 26.[22] Between 1987 and 1999 the administrative structure consisted of nine provinces (oblasti, singularoblast). A new administrative structure was adopted in parallel with the decentralisation of the economic system.[23] It includes 27 provinces and a metropolitan capital province (Sofia-Grad). All areas take their names from their respective capital cities. The provinces subdivide into 264municipalities.
Municipalities are run by mayors, who are elected to four-year terms, and by directly elected municipal councils. Bulgaria is a highlycentralised state, where the national Council of Ministers directly appoints regional governors and all provinces and municipalities are heavily dependent on it for funding.[24]
Croatia is divided into 20 counties and the capital city ofZagreb, the latter having the authority and legal status of a county and a city at the same time. The counties subdivide into 127cities and 429municipalities.[25]
The highest tier of local government in theCzech Republic are thethirteen regions (Czech:kraje, singularkraj) and the capital city ofPrague. Each region has its own elected Regional Assembly (krajské zastupitelstvo) andhejtman (usually translated ashetman orgovernor). In Prague, their powers are executed by the city council and the mayor.
The regions are divided into seventy-sixdistricts (okresy, singularokres) including three "statutory cities" (without Prague, which had special status). The districts lost most of their importance in 1999 in an administrative reform; they remain as territorial divisions and seats of various branches of state administration.[26] A further reform in effect since January 2003 created 204 Municipalities with Extended Competence (obce s rozšířenou působností); also obce III. stupně – third-level municipalities, unofficially also called "little districts" (Czech: 'malé okresy') which took over most of the administration of the former district authorities. Some of these are further divided between Municipalities with Commissioned Local Authority (obce s pověřeným obecním úřadem, shortened to pověřená obec, pl. pověřené obce; "second-level municipalities"). In 2007 the borders of the districts were slightly adjusted, and 119 municipalities are now within different districts.
For local government purposes,Denmark is divided into fiveregions (Danish:regioner), with their most important area of responsibility being the public health service. They are also responsible for employment policies, while some regions are responsible for public mass transit. Regions are not financial independent as they rely entirely on central state funding (around 70%) and funding coming from the municipalities (around 30%). Regions are led by directly elected councils (regionsråd) consisting of 41 members each.
The regions are further divided into 98municipalities (kommuner). Elections for the municipalities are held on the third Tuesday of November every four years.
Estonia is divided into 79municipalities (omavalitsus), and each municipality is a unit of self-government with its representative and executive bodies. Furthermore, the country is also divided into fifteencounties (Estonian:maakonnad), each of which were used to be led by a countygovernor (maavanem), who represents the national government at the regional level. This although changed with 2017administrative reform.
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The most important administrative layer of local government inFinland are the 311municipalities, which may also call themselves towns or cities. They account for half of public spending. Spending is financed by municipal income tax,property tax, state subsidies, and other revenue.
In addition to municipalities, there are two intermediate levels of local government. Municipalities co-operate in seventy-foursub-regions and nineteenregions. These are governed by the member municipalities and have only limited powers. However, the autonomous province ofÅland has a directly elected regional council, and theSami people have a semi-autonomousSami Domicile Area inLapland for issues on language and culture.
According to itsConstitution of 1958,France has 3 levels of local government:
However, in addition to the constitutional clauses of 1958, there now exist specificities:
Since 1 January 2011,Greece consists of thirteenregions subdivided into a total of 325municipalities and communities. The regions have their own elected governors and regional councils, however there are seven decentralized administrations, which group from one to three regions under a government-appointed general secretary. There is also oneautonomous area,Mount Athos.
For local government,Hungary is divided into 19counties. In addition, thecapital (főváros),Budapest and the 25Cities with county rights (megyei jogú városok) is independent of any county government. But all the county capitals are cities with county rights, exceptPest county where Budapest is the capital of the county.
The local authorities of these cities have extended powers, but they belong to the territory of the respective county instead of being independent territorial units.
The counties are further subdivided into 198districts (járások), and Budapest is its own23 districts (kerületek).
TheMunicipalities of Iceland are local administrative areas in Iceland that provide a number of services to their inhabitants such askindergartens,elementary schools,waste management,social services,public housing,public transportation, services tosenior citizens andhandicapped people. They also governzoning and can voluntarily take on additional functions if they have the budget for it. The autonomy of municipalities over their own matters is guaranteed by theconstitution of Iceland.
The municipalities are governed by municipal councils which are directly elected every four years. The sizes of these councils vary from five members in the smallest municipalities to fifteen in the largest one. Most municipalities except for the very small ones hire an executive manager who may or may not be a member of the municipal council. These managers are usually referred to asmayors (bæjarstjóri / borgarstjóri) in the mostly urban municipalities but "commune manager" (sveitarstjóri) in the rural or mixed municipalities.
TheRepublic of Ireland's local government is laid out by theLocal Government Reform Act 2014. With a few exceptions, local government is two-tier. At the lowest level are the municipal, metropolitan or borough councils, which are elected during local elections. These councillors from the relevant county then together form the council, termed either County or City and County Councils. For example, the 4 municipal districts in Westmeath County each elect their own councils, who together formWestmeath County Council. Many functions are performed by the Chief Executive, who is appointed by the Minister for Local Government.
The exceptions to the above is the county of Dublin and the cities of Cork and Galway, the later two's councils are directly elected with no lower council. Dublin county is made up of four local area authorities, each elected directly. There are thirty-one local authorities.
The main sources of funding for local government in Ireland are local property and motor tax revenues, payments from the Exchequer, charges for goods and services, and state grants.[27]
TheConstitution of Italy defines three levels of local government:
Major cities also have an extra tier of local government namedCircoscrizione di Decentramento Comunale or, in some cities (e.g. Rome)Municipio.
Latvia is a unitary state, currently divided into 110 municipalities (Latvian:novadi) and 9 republican cities (Latvian:republikas pilsētas) with their own council.
Liechtenstein is divided into elevenmunicipalities (Gemeinden – singularGemeinde), most consisting of only a single town.
 | This article needs to beupdated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(June 2013) |
Lithuania has a three-tier division of local government: the country is divided into10 counties (Lithuanian: singular –apskritis, plural –apskritys) that are further subdivided into60 municipalities (Lithuanian: singular –savivaldybė, plural –savivaldybės) which consist of over 500elderships (Lithuanian: singular –seniūnija, plural –seniūnijos).
The counties are ruled bycounty governors (Lithuanian:apskrities viršininkas) appointed by the central government, and effectively oversee the two lower tiers of local government.
Municipalities are the most important administrative unit of local government. Each municipality has its own government and council, with elections taking place every four years. The mayor, who is a member of the council, is elected directly by the residents in a majority vote.[28] The council appointselders to govern the elderships.
Elderships, numbering over 500, are the smallest units of local government. They provide public services such as registering births and deaths and identifying individuals or families in need of welfare.
Malta is a unitarycity state divided into 68 municipalities (local councils), according to the constitution of the Malta.
The Netherlands has three tiers of local government: national, provincial, municipal and water board.
The Netherlands is divided into twelve provinces (provincie, pl.provincies). They form the tier of administration between the central government and the municipalities. Each province is governed by a provincial council, the States-Provincial (Provinciale Staten, abbr. toPS). Its members are elected every four years. The day-to-day management of the province is in the hands of the provincial executive, the States Deputed (Gedeputeerde Staten, abbr. toGS). Members of the executive are chosen by the provincial council. The size of the executive varies from one province to another. InFlevoland, the smallest of the Dutch provinces, it has four members, while most other provinces have six or seven. Meetings of the provincial executive are chaired by the King's Commissioner (Commissaris van de Koning(in), abbr. toCvdK). The King's Commissioner is not elected by the residents of the province, but appointed by the Crown (the King and government ministers). The appointment is for six years and may be extended by a second term. The King's Commissioner can be dismissed only by the Crown. King's Commissioners play an important part in the appointment of municipal mayors. When a vacancy arises, the King's Commissioner first asks the municipal council for its views as to a successor, then writes to the Minister of the Interior recommending a candidate.
Municipalities (gemeente, pl.gemeenten) form the lowest tier of government in the Netherlands, after the central government and the provinces. There are 415 of them (1 January 2012). The municipal council (gemeenteraad) is the highest authority in the municipality. Its members are elected every four years. The role of the municipal council is comparable to that of the board of an organisation or institution. Its main job is to decide the municipality's broad policies and to oversee their implementation. The day-to-day administration of the municipality is in the hands of the municipal executive (college van burgemeester en wethouders, abbr. to(college van) B&W), made up of the mayor (burgemeester) and the aldermen (wethouder, pl.wethouders). The executive implements national legislation on matters such as social assistance, unemployment benefits and environmental management. It also bears primary responsibility for the financial affairs of the municipality and for its personnel policies. Aldermen are appointed by the council. Councillors can be chosen to act as aldermen. In that case, they lose their seats on the council and their places are taken by other representatives of the same political parties. Non-councillors can also be appointed. Unlike councillors and aldermen, mayors are not elected (not even indirectly), but are appointed by the Crown. Mayors chair both the municipal council and the executive. They have a number of statutory powers and responsibilities of their own. They are responsible for maintaining public order and safety within the municipality and frequently manage the municipality's public relations. As Crown appointees, mayors also have some responsibility for overseeing the work of the municipality, its policies and relations with other government bodies. Although they are obliged to carry out the decisions of the municipal council and executive, they may recommend that the Minister of the Interior quash any decision that they believe to be contrary to the law or against the public interest. Mayors are invariably appointed for a period of six years. They can be dismissed only by the Crown and not by the municipal council.
Water boards (waterschap andhoogheemraadschap, pl.waterschappen andhoogheemraadschappen) are among the oldest government authorities in the Netherlands. They literally form the foundation of the whole Dutch system of local government; from time immemorial they have shouldered the responsibility for water management for the residents of their area. In polders this mainly involves regulating the water level. It has always been in the common interest to keep water out and polder residents have always had to work together. That is what led to the creation of water boards. The structure of the water boards varies, but they all have a general administrative body and an executive board (college van dijkgraaf en heemraden) consisting of a chairperson (dijkgraaf) and other members ((hoog)heemraad, pl.(hoog)heemraden). The chairperson also presides the general administrative body. This body consists of people representing the various categories of stakeholders: landholders, leaseholders, owners of buildings, companies and, since recently, all the residents as well. Importance and financial contribution decide how many representatives each category may delegate. Certain stakeholders (e.g. environmental organisations) may be given the power to appoint members. The general administrative body elects the executive board from among its members. The government appoints the chairperson for a period of six years. The general administrative body is elected for a period of four years. In the past the administrative body was elected as individuals but from 2009 they will be elected as party representatives.
Norway had 357 municipalities of varying size in 2024, each administered by an elected municipal council. They are grouped into 15 counties (fylker), each governed by an elected county council.[29]
Each county has a governor appointed by the central government, responsible for ensuring legality in their administration.[30] The municipal sector is a provider of vital services to the Norwegian public, accounting for about 20% of Norwegian GNP and 24% of total employment. They have the right to tax and to use their resources to support education, libraries, social security, and public works such as streetcar lines, gas and electricity works, roads, and town planning, but they are usually aided in these activities by state funds.[citation needed]
Oslo is the only urban center that alone constitutes a county; the remaining 14 counties consist of both urban and rural areas. County and municipal councils are popularly elected every four years.
Currently, mainland Portugal is divided into 18 districts (in Portuguese,distritos). Each district takes the name of their respective capital city. Insular Portugal, comprising the twoAtlanticarchipelagos of theAzores andMadeira, is organized as twoautonomous regions (in Portuguese,regiões autónomas).
Each district and each Autonomous region is divided into municipalities (in Portuguese,municípios) which, in turn, are subdivided into parishes (in Portuguese,freguesias).
Since 1976, when the two Autonomous regions of Portugal were established, the Azores and Madeira are no longer divided into districts.
Poland has three levels of subdivision. The Polish territory is divided into 16voivodeships (provinces); these are further divided into 379powiats (counties or districts), and these powiats are further divided into 2,479 gminas (communes or municipalities). Major cities normally have the status of both gmina and powiat.
Each voivodeship is jointly governed by the National-government appointedvoivode and a locally electedsejmik (provincial assembly), which appoints an executive board led by avoivodeship marshal.
The Russian Federation consistes of eighty-five federal subjects that are constituent members of the Federation. However, two of these federal subjects — theRepublic of Crimea and thefederal city ofSevastopol—are internationally recognized as part of Ukraine. All federal subjects are of equal federal rights in the sense that they have equal representation—two delegates each—in theFederation Council (upper house of theFederal Assembly). But they do differ in the degree ofautonomy they enjoy.
The modern administrative-territorial structures of the federal subjects vary significantly from one federal subject to another. While the implementation details may be considerably different, in general, however, the following types of high-level administrative divisions are recognized:
Typical lower-level administrative divisions include:
Slovenia has only one level of local self-government established: municipalities. TheConstitution of the Republic of Slovenia provides also basis for establishing second level, regions, but they haven't been established yet (Article 143).There are two types of municipalities in Slovenia:
Slovenia signed (1994) and ratified (1996) European Charter of Local Self-Government without any reservations. The Charter is in force since March 1, 1997. The Congress of Local and Regional Authorities (Council of Europe) performed threemonitorings (2001, 2011, and 2018).
Spain is divided into 17autonomous communities, which in turn are divided into 50provinces. There are also twoautonomous cities: those ofCeuta andMelilla. Finally, each province comprises a number of municipalities.
Each administrative entity is given powers, structure, and boundaries by a law that was passed by thePrime Minister .
Law 7/1985,[31] passed by the former Spanish Prime MinisterFelipe González Márquez (socialist), lays down the procedure of the Local Government. Every city in Spain used this Law until 2003. This year, the former Spanish Prime MinisterJosé María Aznar (conservative), passed a Law (57/2003)[32] to modernize organic rules of those cities which had more than 250,000 inhabitants, and other important cities (like capital cities of provinces with at least 175,000 inhabitants). Also, it exists two other important Laws for specifically Madrid (Law 22/2006)[33] and Barcelona (Law 1/2006).[34] The main governing body in most municipalities is called Ayuntamiento (in the less populated municipalities an alternative local organization system called open council, "concejo abierto", is used). The Ayuntamiento in turn is formed by the Plenary (el Pleno, the collective formed by the city councillors) and the Mayor. The number of members that compose The Plenary varies depending on city's population (for example, since 2007 Valencia has 33 members and Pamplona has 27). The name given to the members of the Plenary is councillor (concejal). Those councillors are elected between city's inhabitants every four years by direct vote. After being elected, councillors meet in a special Plenary session to determine who will be elected, between them, as city's Mayor. In the next days after the election, the mayor chooses some councillors to set up the executive governing body (Junta de Gobierno orComisión de Gobierno). After that, and for the next four years, city's mayor and theJunta de Gobierno will govern over the city according to their competences (urbanism, some taxes, local police, licenses for specific activities, cleaning services, etc.). Meanwhile, councillors in the Plenary but not part of theJunta de Gobierno (the opposition) will oversee Mayor's rule.The autonomous community of Catalonia is divided in 4 provinces and more than 900 municipalities. Between these two tiers, there are 41comarques (singular,comarca), roughly equivalent to 'district' or 'county'. Thecomarca is a commonwealth, or union, of municipalities with competences in several fields (Law 6/1987 of the Parliament of Catalonia).
Every fourth year general elections are held in Sweden to elect members of the national parliament, 20 county council assemblies and 290 municipal assemblies. As the parliament elects the national government, the local assemblies elect their executive committees and their boards. Members in local committees and boards are elected proportionally by the political parties in the assemblies, giving all the major parties representation. The parties usually cooperate well on the local levels.
The county councils (landsting) are responsible for health care and usually provide transportation.
The municipalities (kommuner) are responsible for:
On a voluntary basis, the municipalities provide sports, culture, housing, energy as well as commercial service.
The activities are financed by income taxes. Swedes pay around 20% of their taxable income to the municipality and around 11% to the county council. (The national government is financed by VAT and payroll taxes and fees.)
The system of local government is different in each of the four home nations of the UK. In total there are 426 local authorities in the UK. 346 of these are in England, 11 in Northern Ireland, 32 in Scotland and 22 are in Wales.
The most complex system is in England, the result of numerous reforms and reorganisation over the centuries. The top-level of sub-national administration within England until the end of March 2012 consisted of the nineregions. The regions were used by central government for various statistical purposes, andGovernment Offices for the English Regions and assorted other institutions includingRegional Development Agencies. Regional Government Offices, Regional Development Agencies and Regional Ministers were all abolished by theCameron ministry in 2010. Only the London region which is a sub-region compared to the other regions of England has a directly elected government. Only one regional referendum has been held to date to seek consent for the introduction of direct elections elsewhere — byJohn Prescott in the northeast of England — and this was initially rejected by the people of theNorth East in 2004.
The layers of elected local government vary. In different areas the highest tier of elected local government may be:
In most areas there is a lower tier of government,civil parishes, with unlimited functions and powers under the2011 Localism Act.
Most civil parishes are in rural areas, but if the parish is a town theparish council may be called atown council. In a few cases the parish is acity, and the parish council is called acity council.
Metropolitan counties, and a fewnon-metropolitan counties, no longer have elected councils or administrative functions, and their former functions are performed by districts. Such counties remainceremonial counties.
Local government on theIsle of Man is partly based on the ancient parishes. There are four types of local authorities: a borough corporation, town commissioners, village commissioners, and parish commissioners.
Since 1 April 2015 Northern Ireland is divided into 11 districts. Local government in Northern Ireland does not carry out the same range of functions as those in the rest of the United Kingdom.
Local government in Scotland is arranged on the lines ofunitary authorities, with the nation divided into 32council areas.
Wales has a uniform system of 22 unitary authorities, variously styled as county, county borough, city or city and county local authorities. There are alsocommunities, equivalent to parishes.
TheLocal Government Association (LGA) is the national membership body for local authorities in England and Wales. Its core membership is made up of 317 English councils and the 22 Welsh councils through the Welsh Local Government Association. Across the UK, the Association for Public Service Excellence (APSE) also works to assist local authorities in the UK to improve their frontline services. APSE works with more than 250 local authorities "to advise and share information and expertise on a broad range of frontline public services".[35]
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In Canada's federal system, local government is the responsibility ofprovincial and territorial governments.[36] The most prominent form of local government is the municipality, which is a locally elected authority with responsibility over a variety of services, such as roads, parks, fire protection, policing, planning, libraries, transit, and waste management.[37] The exact responsibilities, powers, and governance of municipalities varies from province to province. InBritish Columbia,Ontario, andQuebec, municipalities operate on a two-tiered system, where lower-tier local municipalities administer some services, such as fire protection or parks, while upper-tier regional municipalities administer shared services, such as utilities, waste management, or policing.[38][39][40] The remaining provinces and territories use a single-tier system of municipal government, where each municipality is legally independent of every other, although they may still voluntarily share services.
In addition to municipal government, some provinces maintain special purpose boards to govern police services, school districts, conservation authorities, or to provide certain municipal services to unincorporated areas that would not otherwise receive them.[41]
The federal government regulatesFirst Nations band governments, which deliver local services toIndigenous reserves in the country.[42] Many band governments administer more than one reserve, and may participate in tribal councils, a form of voluntary regional organization for several band governments.[43]
Mexico is a Federal Republic made up by 31states andMexico City. Each state is divided inmunicipios, while Mexico City is divided in sixteendemarcaciones territoriales (formerly calleddelegaciones). Twenty-nine states of Mexico were created as administrative divisions by the constitution of 1917, which grants them those powers not expressly vested in the federal government; Mexico's two remaining territories,Baja California Sur andQuintana Roo, achieved statehood on 8 October 1974, raising the total to 31.[44] Each state has a constitution, a governor elected for six years, and a unicameral legislature, with representatives elected by district vote in proportion to population. An ordinary session of the legislature is held annually, and extraordinary sessions may be called by the governor or the permanent committee. Bills may be introduced by legislators, by the governor, by the state supreme court, and by municipalities (a unit comparable to a US county). In addition to the 31 states, there is alsoMexico City, whoseHead of Government serves as a member of the city's cabinet and its title is compared as a governor. Many state services are supported by federal subsidies.
The principal unit of state government is the municipality. Mexico's 2,378 municipalities are governed by municipal presidents and municipal councils. State governors generally select the nominees for the municipal elections. Municipal budgets are approved by the respective state governors. Until 1997, the president appointed the mayor of Mexico City. Political reforms allowed the first open elections in 1997, andCuauhtémoc Cardenas Solórzano became Mexico City's first elected mayor.
Local government in the United States refers to governmental jurisdictions below the level of thestate. Most states have at least two tiers of local government:counties andmunicipalities. In some states, counties are divided intotownships. There are several different types of jurisdictions at the municipal level, including thecity,town,parish,borough,village,reservations andboundaries. The types and nature of these municipal entities varies from state to state.
Local government is the third tier of government in Australia, after federal and state.
New Zealand has a local government system comprising two complementary sets of local authorities—regional councils andterritorial authorities. There are 78 local authorities consisting of:
Six of the territorial authorities areunitary authorities, which also have the powers of a regional council. They are Auckland Council, Nelson City Council, the Gisborne, Marlborough and Tasman district councils, and Chatham Islands Council.
Regional council areas are based on water catchment areas, whereas territorial authorities are based on community of interest and road access. Within a regional council area there are usually many city or district councils, although city and district councils can be in multiple regional council areas.
Argentina is a federation of 23 provinces and the federal capital ofBuenos Aires. During the 19th century there was a bitter struggle between Buenos Aires and the interior provinces, and there has long been an element of tension regarding the division of powers between the central government and provincial bodies. The federal government retains control over such matters as the regulation of commerce, customs collections, currency, civil or commercial codes, or the appointment of foreign agents. The provincial governors are elected every four years.
The constitutional "national intervention" and "state of siege" powers of the president have been invoked frequently. The first of these powers was designed to "guarantee the republican form of government in the provinces." Since the adoption of the 1853 constitution, the federal government has intervened over 200 times, mostly by presidential decree. Under this authority, provincial and municipal offices may be declared vacant, appointments annulled, and local elections supervised. Between 1966 and 1973, all local legislatures were dissolved, and provincial governors were appointed by the new president. A restoration of provincial and municipal government followed the return to constitutional government in 1973. After the March 1976 coup, the federal government again intervened to remove all provincial governors and impose direct military rule over all municipalities. Since 1983, representative local government has been in force again.
Until 1996, the President appointed the mayor of Buenos Aires, and by law, the president and Congress controlled any legislation that affected the city. Constitutional reforms that year led to an elected mayoral position, and a 60-member Poder Legislativo (legislative power).
Brazil is afederation consisting of 27federative units: 26 states and oneFederal District. Government exists at three levels: federal, state, and municipal. The states are subdivided into 5,570municipalities, while the Federal District has no municipalities (divided intoadministrative regions instead) and has powers of both a state and a municipality..
Municipal government consists of an executive branch headed by amayor (Prefeito/Prefeita), and a legislative branch (Câmara Municipal), serving four-year terms. Municipalities are enshrined in theconstitution of 1988 as entities of the federation; their responsibilities are distinct from the other two levels in theory,[45] but overlap in practice (e.g. education, health, transportation).[46] With their broad powers, municipalities may create their own constitutions, termedorganic law, and cannot be overruled by state governments.[46]
Elections at the municipal level follow a similar, partisan system tostate and federal elections, but take place in different years. Municipalities may have anywhere from 9 to 55 members of theCâmara Municipal, depending on the population.[47] There is no minimum or maximum population requirement for municipalities: while the average population of a municipality in 2005 was 30,099,Borá, São Paulo state (the least populous) had only 823 inhabitants, whileSão Paulo (the largest) had 10.9 million inhabitants.[46] Municipalities within a state may choose to merge or separate with approval in aplebiscite and enacting of a state law.[48]
Paraguay is divided into 17departments, which are subdivided into districts, which, in turn, comprise municipalities (the minimum requirement for a municipality is 3,000 persons) and rural districts (partidos). A governor, elected by popular vote, runs each department. Municipal government is exercised through a municipal board, chosen by direct election, and an executive department. In the principal cities and capitals, the executive department is headed by a mayor appointed by the minister of the interior; in other localities, the mayor is appointed by the presidents of the municipal boards. Police chiefs are appointed by the central government.
Peru is divided into25 regions and theprovince of Lima. Each region has an elected government composed of a president and council that serve four-year terms.[49] These governments plan regional development, execute public investment projects, promote economic activities, and manage public property.[50] The province of Lima is administered by a city council.[51] The goal of devolving power to regional and municipal governments was among others to improve popular participation.NGOs played an important role in thedecentralisation process and still influence local politics.[52]
Uruguay's administrative subdivisions consisted of nineteen territories called departments and governed by intendencias, which were subordinate to the central government and responsible for local administration. They enforced national laws and administered the nation's social and educational policies and institutions within their territories. These territories had limited taxing powers, but they could borrow funds and acquire property. They also had the power to establish unpaid five-member local boards or town councils in municipalities other than the departmental capital if the population was large enough to warrant such a body.
Executive authority was vested in a governor (intendente), who administered the department, and in a thirty-one-member departmental board (junta departmental), which carried out legislative functions. These functions included approval of the departmental budget and judicial actions, such as impeachment proceedings against departmental officials, including the governor. At the municipal level, a mayor (intendente municipal) assumed executive and administrative duties, carrying out resolutions made by the local board (whose members were appointed on the basis of proportional representation of the political parties). The governor was required to comply with and enforce the constitution and the laws and to promulgate the decrees enacted by the departmental board. The governor was authorized to prepare the budget, submit it for approval to the departmental board, appoint the board's employees, and, if necessary, discipline or suspend them. The governor represented the department in its relations with the national government and other departmental governments and in the negotiation of contracts with public or private agencies.
Like the governor, the members of the departmental board and the mayor were elected for five-year terms in direct, popular elections. A governor could be reelected only once, and candidates for the post had to meet the same requirements as those for a senator, in addition to being a native of the department or a resident therein for at least three years before assuming office. Departmental board members had to be at least twenty-three years of age, native born (or a legal citizen for at least three years), and a native of the department (or a resident for at least three years).
The board sat in the capital city of each department and exercised jurisdiction throughout the entire territory of the department. It could issue decrees and resolutions that it deemed necessary either on the suggestion of the governor or on its own initiative. It could approve budgets, fix the amount of taxes, request the intervention of the Accounts Tribunal for advice concerning departmental finances or administration, and remove from office—at the request of the governor—members of nonelective local departmental boards. The board also supervised local public services; public health; and primary, secondary, preparatory, industrial, and artistic education. Although Montevideo was the smallest department in terms of area (divided into twenty-three geographic zones that generally coincided with the electoral zones), its departmental board had sixty-five members in 1990; all other departments had thirty-one-member boards and a five-member executive council appointed by the departmental board, with proportional representation from the principal political parties.
Data as of December 1990[citation needed]
