Zaporozhian Host Військо Запорозьке (Ukrainian) | |||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1648–1764 | |||||||||||||||
 The Cossack Hetmanate in 1654 | |||||||||||||||
| Status |
| ||||||||||||||
| Capital | |||||||||||||||
| Common languages | |||||||||||||||
| Religion | Eastern Orthodox | ||||||||||||||
| Government | Stratocraticelective monarchy[10][11][12][13] General Military Chancellery | ||||||||||||||
| Hetman | |||||||||||||||
• 1648–1657 (first) | Bohdan Khmelnytsky | ||||||||||||||
• 1750–1764 (last) | Kirill Razumovsky | ||||||||||||||
| Legislature | General Cossack Council Council of Officers | ||||||||||||||
| History | |||||||||||||||
| 18 (8) August 1649 1648 | |||||||||||||||
| 1651 | |||||||||||||||
| 1654 | |||||||||||||||
| 1667 | |||||||||||||||
• Hetman post abolished inPoland | 1686 | ||||||||||||||
• Kolomak Articles | 1687 | ||||||||||||||
• Hetman post abolished inRussia | 21 (10) November 1764 | ||||||||||||||
| Area | |||||||||||||||
| 1649-1667[14] | 312,000 km2 (120,000 sq mi) | ||||||||||||||
| 1686-1764[15] | 208,000 km2 (80,000 sq mi) | ||||||||||||||
| Population | |||||||||||||||
| over 3 million[16] | |||||||||||||||
• 1764 | 1,017,000(estimated byZenon Kohut)[17] | ||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||
| Today part of | |||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||
TheCossack Hetmanate[nb 1] (Ukrainian:Гетьма́нщина,romanized: Hetmanshchyna;see other names), officially theZaporozhian Host (Ruthenian: Войско Zапорожскоε;[19]Ukrainian:Військо Запорозьке,romanized: Viisko Zaporozke;Latin:Exercitus Zaporoviensis),[18] was astratocraticZaporozhian Cossack state established byRegistered Cossacks inDnieper Ukraine.[14] Its territory was located mostly in the region ofCentral Ukraine, as well as in parts ofBelarus and southwestern Russia,[11][20][21][22] and at different points it also incorporated the territories ofZaporozhian Sich to the south.[14] The Hetmanate existed between 1648 and 1764, although its administrative-judicial system persisted until 1781. In different periods it was a vassal of thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, theOttoman Empire and theRussian Empire.
The Hetmanate was legally recognized in the eastern territories of thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth by theTreaty of Zboriv, signed on August 18, 1649 byBohdan Khmelnytsky (Hetman of the Zaporizhian Host) andAdam Kysil (representing Crown Forces), as a result of theKhmelnytsky Uprising. Establishment of vassal relations with theTsardom of Moscow in theTreaty of Pereiaslav of 1654 is considered a benchmark of the Cossack Hetmanate in Soviet, Ukrainian, and Russianhistoriography. The secondPereiaslav Council in 1659 restricted the independence of the Hetmanate, and from the Russian side there were attempts to declare agreements reached withYurii Khmelnytsky in 1659 as nothing more than the "former Bohdan's agreements" of 1654.[23][24][25] The 1667Treaty of Andrusovo, conducted without any representation from the Cossack Hetmanate, established the borders between the Polish and Russian states, dividing the Hetmanate in half along theDnieper and putting the Zaporozhian Sich under a formal joint Russian-Polish administration.
After a failed attempt to break the union with Russia byIvan Mazepa in 1708, the whole area was included into theKiev Governorate,[26] and Cossack autonomy was severely restricted.Catherine II of Russia officially abolished the position of Hetman in 1764, and from 1764 to 1781, the Cossack Hetmanate was incorporated as theLittle Russia Governorate headed byPyotr Rumyantsev, with the last remnants of the Hetmanate's administrative system abolished in 1781.
The official name of the Cossack Hetmanate was theZaporizhianHost /Army ofZaporozhia (Ukrainian:Військо Запорозьке).[27] Thehistoriographic termHetmanate (Ukrainian:Гетьманщина,romanized: Hetmanshchyna,Polish:Hetmańszczyzna,lit. 'Hetman state') was coined in the late 19th century,[11] deriving from the wordhetman, the title of the general of the Zaporizhian Army. Despite not being centered in Zaporizhia, the host's name (lit. 'beyond the rapids') was derived from Cossacks inSouthern Ukraine centered on theZaporizhian Sich,[28] as well as a general name forUkrainian Cossacks as a political and military organization.[28]
_Together_with_its_Neighboring_Provinces_WDL79.png)
The name "Ukraine", initially referring to thePolishpalatinates ofKyiv,Bratslav andChernihiv, was widely used in reference to the lands of the Hetmanate, although its meaning was rather poetic than formal, and denoted the generic homeland of the Cossacks.[29] TheConstitution of Pylyp Orlyk (1710) refers to the Hetmanate as "Little Russia" ("кордони Малої Росії, Вітчизни нашої",lit. 'borders of Little Russia, our Fatherland') and "Ukraine" (Ukrainian:Україна,Latin:Ucraina);[30] the latter name is found in various Polish, Russian,[31][32] Ottoman and Arab sources. Following theKhmelnytsky Uprising in 1648, the name "Little Russia" gained ground and was used in relations with Moscow, while internally, the territory was calledUkraine and its inhabitants as the "Ruthenian nation".[33] In Russian diplomatic correspondence, it was called Little Russia (Russian:Малороссия,romanized: Malorossiya) and theLittle Russia Office was created as a government department.[34][33] The Cossack Hetmanate was called the "Country of Ukraine" (Turkish:اوكراینا مملكتی,romanized: Ukrayna memleketi) by theOttoman Empire.[35] In the text ofTreaty of Buchach, it is mentioned as the Ukrainian State (Polish:Państwo Ukraińskie).[36] The map of Ukraine made byJohann Homann, refers to it as 'Ukraine, or the Land of Cossacks" (Latin:Ukrania quae et Terra Cosaccorum). The Russian poetAlexander Pushkin also talks about "Ukraine" rather than "Cossack Hetmanate" in his poemPoltava describing events around the 1709Battle of Poltava.[citation needed]
The founder of the Hetmanate,Bohdan Khmelnytsky, declared himself the ruler of theRuthenian state to the Polish representativeAdam Kysil in February 1649.[37] His contemporaryMetropolitanSylvestr Kosiv recognized him as "the leader and the commander of our land". In his letter toConstantin Șerban (1657), he referred to himself asClementiae divinae Generalis DuxExercituum Zaporoviensium.[38]
Grand Principality of Ruthenia was the proposed name of the Cossack Hetmanate as part of thePolish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth.[39][40]
 | This sectionneeds additional citations forverification. Please helpimprove this article byadding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.(November 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
The Hetmanate emerged as a result of a major Cossack uprising in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which broke out in 1648 in Ukrainian lands under the leadership of Bohdan Khmelnytsky. The causes of the uprising includedcorruption within the royal administrations of the Commonwealth,[41] social disenfranchisement, intensification of the activities of theOrthodox Church, and the growth of the Cossack population despite government-imposed limitations. As a result of continuous wars with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Cossack Hetmanate effectively became independent but lacked international legal recognition.
After many successful military campaigns against the Poles, HetmanBohdan Khmelnytsky made a triumphant entry intoKyiv on Christmas 1648, where he was hailed as a liberator of the people from Polish captivity.[42] In February 1649, during negotiations inPereiaslav with a Polish delegation, Khmelnytsky made it clear to the Poles that he wanted to be theHetman of a Ruthenia stretching toChelm andHalych, and build with the Tatar's help. He warned them he intended to resume his military campaign.[43]
When the delegation returned and informedJohn II Casimir of Khmelnytsky's new campaign, the king called for an allszlachta volunteer army, and sent regular troops against the cossacks in southernVolhynia. However, after obtaining intelligence of superior cossack forces, the Polish troops retreated toZbarazh to set up a defense. The forces ofJeremi Wiśniowiecki reinforced the Zbarazh defenders while he took the lead of all Polish forces. Khmelnytsky besieged the city, wearing it down through a series of random attacks and bombardments. The king, while rushing to help Wiśniowiecki, was ambushed with his newly gathered forces. Khmelnytsky, leaving part of his army withIvan Cherniata near Zbarazh, moved together withİslâm III Giray to intercept the Polish reinforcements and block their way at a river crossing nearZboriv. Caught by some degree of surprise, John Casimir started negotiations with the Tatar's khan. With the khan at his side, he forced Khmelnytsky to start peace negotiations.
Khmelnytsky signed theTreaty of Zboriv in August 1649, with a result somewhat less than the Cossack leader had anticipated from his campaign. According to the concluded agreement, the number ofRegistered Cossacks had to be increased to 40,000 and the Crown Forces were not allowed to enter the territory east of townsHornostaipil,Korostyshiv,Pavoloch,Pohrebyshche,Vinnytsia,Bratslav,Yampil up to Muscovy border which generally related to theKyiv Voivodeship (Palatinatus Kioviensis),Bratslav Voivodeship (Palatinatus Braclavensis), andChernihiv Voivodeship (Ducatus Chernichov and Ducatus Novogrodeck) .[44]
As ruler of the Hetmanate, Khmelnytsky engaged in state-building across multiple spheres: military, administration, finance, economics, and culture. He invested theZaporozhian Host under the leadership of its hetman with supreme power in the new Ruthenian state, and unified all the spheres of Ukrainian society under his authority. This involved building a government system and a developed military and civilian administration out of Cossack officers and Ruthenian nobles, as well as the establishment of an elite within the Cossack Hetman state.
The Hetmanate used Polish currency, and Polish was frequently used as the language of administration and even of command.[45] However, after theTruce of Andrusovo in 1667, the "simple language" (Ukrainian:проста мова), or the commonly spoken vernacular language of Ukraine, began to be written down and widely used in official documents of the Cossack Hetmanate.[46][failed verification]
The unreliability of the alliance with the Crimean Khanate compelled Khmelnytsky to seek foreign assistance in the struggle against Warsaw. Among the candidates willing to accept the Cossacks under their protection, the hetman considered Ottoman Sultan Mehmed and Muscovite Tsar Alexis.[47] After prolonged negotiations, the Cossack side chose the latter.
After theCrimean Tatars betrayed the Cossacks for the third time in 1653, Khmelnytsky realized he could no longer rely onOttoman support against Poland, and he was forced to turn toTsardom of Russia for help. Final attempts to negotiate took place in January 1654 in the town ofPereiaslav between Khmelnytsky with Cossack leaders and the Tsar's ambassador,Vasiliy Buturlin. At the Pereiaslav Council, Khmelnytsky and the Cossack elite swore allegiance to the tsar in exchange for recognition of the Hetmanate’s self-government and the declaration of war against the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[48]
Additional conditions of the Muscovite–Cossack alliance were set out in the March Articles, which were signed by the hetman later that same year. The treaty was concluded in April inMoscow by the CossacksSamiilo Bohdanovych-Zarudny andPavlo Teteria, and byAleksey Trubetskoy, Vasilii Buturlin, and otherboyars. As a result of the treaty, the Zaporozhian Host became an autonomous Hetmanate within the Russian state. The treaty also led to theRusso-Polish War of 1654–1667.[49]
In the spring of 1654, a joint Cossack–Muscovite army invaded the territory of Lithuania. The Cossacks independently captured the lands ofWhite Ruthenia and, together with the Muscovites, seized the capitalVilnius. In response, the army of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, along with Crimean Tatars, launched a campaign against the UkrainianBratslav region. Khmelnytsky halted the enemy in 1655 at theBattle of Okhmativ. The military weakening of the Commonwealth was exploited by the Swedish Empire. In 1655, Swedish KingCharles X launched a war against the Commonwealth in the Baltic region.[50]
The following year, fearing the strengthening of Sweden in the region, the Muscovite Tsardom declared war on Sweden and concluded a separateVilnius Peace with the Commonwealth. The Muscovites excluded the Cossacks from negotiations with the Poles and opposed the annexation of southern Belarus to the Hetmanate. Due to violations of the Pereiaslav agreements, Khmelnytsky concluded an alliance with theSwedish Empire and thePrincipality of Transylvania — enemies of Muscovy — and continued the struggle against the Commonwealth. This amounted to a de facto break with Muscovite protectorate. He also renewed diplomatic contacts with Crimea, perceiving a threat to Cossack sovereignty from the southeast.[51]
The period of Hetmanate history known as "theRuin", lasting from 1657 to 1687, was marked by constant civil wars throughout the state.
AfterBohdan Khmelnytsky died in 1657, his sixteen-year-old sonYurii Khmelnytsky was elected as successor. Bohdan's son was not only too young and inexperienced, but also clearly lacked the charisma and leadership qualities of his father. In response,Ivan Vyhovsky, the general scribe (Ukrainian:писар,romanized: pysar) of the Hetmanate and an adviser to Bohdan Khmelnytsky, was elected hetman in 1657 by theStarshyna council. His election caused widespread discontent among other regiments and the Zaporizhian Host, who sent runners to Moscow with complaints. As a result, new elections were called that same year at which Vyhovsky was reelected at the General Military Council. This election was also confirmed by Russian authorities who were informed according to the Pereiaslav treaty. Moscow continued to accept runners from the regions of Cossack Hetmanate completely disregarding the authority of hetman and spreading rumors that in truth Russia did not support the candidacy of Vyhovsky.[52]
Vyhovsky's election was opposed by theZaporozhian Cossacks, who had not been invited to the council, and by Poltava colonelMartyn Pushkar, who led opposition forces that rejected the restoration of the noble-dominated social order. Together with the ZaporozhianatamanYakiv Barabash, Pushkar raised a rebellion inLeft-Bank Ukraine and appealed for support to the only possible ally — Muscovite Tsardom. Initially, the tsar attempted to reconcile the sides, later sending troops intended to support either the hetman, if he dismissed the Tatars, or the rebels if he failed to do so. Vyhovsky, seeing the situation turning out of his control, went on to extinguish the revolt. In the spring[52] of 1658 Vyhovsky crossedDnieper and confronted mutineers nearPoltava with the help of Tatars. During the battle Pushkar was killed and replaced with a new colonel, while the leaders of the uprising were strictly repressed.[53]
Within a year, the hetman managed to suppress the opposition militarily. Subsequently, due to Vyhovsky’s openly pro-Polish policy and continued overt support of anti-hetman forces by the Muscovite government, he pursued a course toward withdrawal from Muscovite protection. The newly elected MetropolitanDionisi Balaban was transferred toChyhyryn, away from Kyiv. A manifest nullifying the union with Russia was sent throughout Europe, mainly because it was conducting friendly relationships with Poland and supporting internal opposition within the Hetmanate. Negotiations with Sweden had frozen, while he had military support from theCrimean Khanate, so Vyhovsky decided to renegotiate with Poland, with whom talks continued for quite some time.
On September 16, 1658 inHadiach, aCossack council together with emissaries of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth approved an agreement proposed by the hetman to return Ukraine under the authority of the Polish king. TheTreaty of Hadiach was signed based on the idea of transforming the Commonwealth into a union of Poland, Lithuania, andCossack Rus’. Under the conditions of the treaty, Ukraine would become a third and autonomous component of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, under the ultimate sovereignty of theKing of Poland but with its own military, courts, and treasury. But the treaty, although ratified by the Diet in May 1659, was never implemented because it was unpopular among the lower classes of the Ruthenian society,[citation needed] where more rebellions occurred.
In response to the Treaty of Hadiach, the Muscovite Tsardom sent troops into Ukraine, which were defeated by Vyhovsky and his allies in 1659at Konotop. Despite the victory, the hetman could not capitalize on it — the WarsawSejm curtailed the negotiated text of the Hadiach Agreement. This provoked outrage among the entire Cossack community and contributed to the revival of pro-Muscovite influences on the Left Bank. At the same time, Zaporozhian Cossacks led byIvan Sirko independently launched a raid against Crimea, an ally of Vyhovsky. In September 1659, the hetman was deposed at aBlack Council near Hermanivka for having “sold Ukraine to the Poles”. Vyhovsky escaped, and in Bila Tserkva the Cossacks elected the 18-year-old Yurii Khmelnytsky, son of the late Bohdan, as the new hetman, who signed the newly composedPereiaslav Articles that were increasingly unfavorable for the Hetmanate[54] and later led to introduction ofserfdom rights.
.jpg)
After the flight of Teteria,Petro Doroshenko was elected the new hetman of Right-Bank Ukraine. He suppressed pro-Muscovite opposition in his territory, resumed negotiations with the Ottoman Empire regarding protection, and, with the support of the Crimean Tatars, launched a war against the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, hoping to “drive all Poles out of Ukraine into Poland”. These actions pushed the Commonwealth and the Muscovite Tsardom toward peace. In 1667, the Russo-Polish war ended with theTreaty of Andrusovo, which split the Cossack Hetmanate along the Dnieper River:left-bank Ukraine enjoyed a degree of autonomy within the Tsardom of Russia, whileright-bank Ukraine remained part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and was temporarily occupied by the Ottoman Empire in the period of 1672–1699 (see theTreaty of Buchach and theTreaty of Karlowitz). The agreement nullified the Cossacks’ struggle for their own state and provoked widespread outrage on both sides of the river.
In 1668, councils of Cossack elders convened in Right-Bank Chyhyryn and Left-Bank Hadiach adopted identical resolutions—to accept the protection of the Ottoman sultan. An anti-Muscovite uprising erupted on the Left Bank. NearDykanka, the hetmans Doroshenko and Briukhovetsky met; however, rank-and-file Cossacks tore the latter apart as a traitor to Moscow. Doroshenko was proclaimed hetman of both banks of the Dnieper.[55] For a short time,Petro Doroshenko became the hetman of both banks. He defeated the Muscovite army and returned to Chyhyryn, leaving the defense of the Left Bank to the Chernihiv colonelDemian Mnohohrishny. However, already in 1669, in Doroshenko’s absence, part of the Left-Bank elite, persuaded by Orthodox ArchbishopLazar Baranovych, proclaimed Mnohohrishny hetman and approved the signing of the Hlukhiv Articles — a new agreement establishing Muscovite protection over the Cossacks. Due to Mnohohrishny’s sympathy for Doroshenko, he quickly lost the hetman’smace. In 1672, Muscovite troops surroundedBaturyn, arrested the hetman, and after torturing him in Moscow, exiled him toSiberia.[56] At a new Cossack council held on Muscovite territory nearPutyvl, surrounded by Muscovite troops, a new hetman was elected—General ChancellorIvan Samoilovych, one of those who had denounced Mnohohrishny. He signed new Konotop Articles, which deprived the Hetmanate of the right to conduct independent foreign policy and stripped ordinary Cossacks of the right to elect the hetman.
Against the backdrop of the gradual absorption of the Left Bank by Muscovy and internal anarchy, in 1669 the Right-Bank hetman Petro Doroshenko accepted the protection of the Ottoman sultan near Korsun. After treason byDemian Mnohohrishny and a new Polish offensive, Doroshenko concluded an alliance with the Ottomans, who granted him Ukraine, while the hetman agreed to support Ottoman military action with his army. "By 1669 the Porte issued a patent (berat, nişan) granting Doroshenko all of Cossack Ukraine as an Ottomansancak or province".[5] This move sharply reduced his popularity among the Ukrainians and commoners, giving rise to the emergence of two self-proclaimed right-bank hetmans, Petro Sukhovii and the pro-PolishMykhailo Khanenko. Direct armed support of the anti-Doroshenko forces by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth forcedSultan Mehmed IV to intervene in the conflict. In 1672, Ottoman troops capturedPodillia, theBratslav region, and the southernKyiv region and forced the Poles to sign theTreaty of Buchach. Doroshenko restored his power, but due to Tatar raids and violentislamization, the Ukrainian population of the right bank began to flee to the left bank of the Dnieper,Sloboda Ukraine,Galicia andVolhynia.
In 1674, Samoilovych's left-bank Cossacks, together with the Russian army,invaded the right bank, and in 1676, deprived of support, Doroshenko capitulated, surrendering the hetman's capital of Chyhyryn withkleinods. These events unleashed theRusso-Turkish War, as a result of which the Ottoman-Tatar army completely destroyed the Cossack capital Chyhyryn. In order to deprive the enemy of support, the Left-bank hetman's government forcibly removed the entire population of the Dnieper region to the Left bank. The war ended with the conclusion of theBakhchysarai Peace in 1681. According to this treaty, the Russo-Ottoman border was established along the Dnieper; the territory between the Dnieper andBuh rivers had to be uninhabited for 20 years. After the defeat of the Ottomans at theBattle of Vienna in 1683, the Tsardom of Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth concluded theTreaty of Perpetual Peace in 1686, which also established the division of the Hetmanate between them. On the left bank, Samoilovych was considered to be the culprit of the disintegration of the Cossack state between the Tsardom of Russia, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire. After the unsuccessfulCrimean campaign of 1687, he was denounced, arrested and exiled toSiberia. At the same time, on the right bank, the Poles abolished the Cossack self-government and theregimental system in 1699. As a result, the Hetmanate continued to exist only on the left bank of the Dnieper.[57]
.jpg)
The period of the Ruin effectively ended whenIvan Mazepa was elected hetman, serving from 1687 to 1708. He brought stability to the Left-bank Ukraine, which was again united under a single hetman. The Hetmanate flourished under his rule, particularly in literature and architecture. The architectural style that developed during his reign was called theCossack Baroque style. Mazepa worked to elevate the Cossack starshyna to the status of a new nobility, including not only high-ranked officials, but also members of their families into the new elite and turning them into a privileged group separate fromrank and file Cossacks. This new aristocracy preferred to style itself as szlachta, underlining its direct descent from the political nation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and adopting its owncoats of arms. Lower classes, most prominently peasants, were subjected to the military administration and required to pay taxes. Social mobility between classes was a usual occurrence, with richer peasants able to provide themselves with weapons entering the Cossack army, and poorer Cossacks working on land turining into peasants. Big landowners practiced the creation ofslobodas, where new settlers coming to their land were allowed to live on beneficial terms; with time those settlers would be turned into their landlord's subjects. The rise of the new Cossack elite caused social frictions, illustrated by the 1692 revolt led by Petro Ivanenko (Petryk).[58]
Mazepa's military policies contributed to the popular dissatisfaction, as the hetman was required to provide Cossack troops for numerous wars led by the Russian government. TheGreat Northern War, which broke out betweenRussia andSweden in 1700, greatly damaged the Ukrainian economy by disrupting the trade with Poland. Mazepa's alliance withPeter I caused heavy losses among Cossacks and increased Russian interference in the Hetmanate's internal affairs. Russian troops stationed in Ukraine engaged in mass requisition of food and cattle, which put an additional burden on the heavily taxed population, and violated local law by exploiting Cossacks in military construction, robbing houses and engaging in murder and rape.[59] When thetsar refused to defend Ukraine against the Polish KingStanislaus Leszczynski, an ally ofCharles XII of Sweden, Mazepa allied himself with the Swedes on October 28, 1708. As most Cossack regiments at that time were fighting at the front, only a small number of Cossacks joined the hetman in his alliance with Charles XII.[60]
Having learned about Mazepa's desertion, Peter declared him a traitor and ordered his generalAlexander Menshikov to burn the hetman's capital in Baturyn. Up to 15,000 people, including women and children, were killed during thesack of the city by Muscovite troops on 13 November 1708. A special commission was created inLebedyn in order topersecute suspected followers of the renegade hetman. This resulted in the death of over 900 Cossack officials, who were accused of treason. On 17 November, after performing a mock execution of Mazepa'seffigy, Peter officially appointedStarodub colonelIvan Skoropadsky as hetman. Ananathema on Mazepa's name was officially proclaimed by theRussian Orthodox Church and remained in place until 1918.[61]
The unusually coldwinter of 1708-1709 contributed to problems suffered by Mazepa and his new Swedish allies arriving to Ukraine: soldiers were suffering from the lack of residential quarters and warm clothes, and the need to requisition food and animal feed caused dissatisfaction among locals. In addition, Peter's agents spread rumours about the hetman being a secret Catholic and a Polish sympathizer. The fact that Charles XII's soldiers wereProtestants also didn't help to win the popular sympathy. Hostility to Mazepa's allies increased after the Swedish campaign inSloboda Ukraine during early 1709, as a result of which numerous settlements were ruined. On the positive side, in March 1709 Zaporozhian Sich, the hetman's longtime opponent, joined Mazepa's anti-Moscow alliance, with itskish otamanKost Hordiienko arriving to the Swedish-Cossack camp. As a reaction to this development, Peter I ordered the destruction of the Zaporozhian Sich, and in May his troops executed thousands of people residing in its territories.[62]
The decisivebattle of Poltava, which took place on 8 July 1709 ended in the defeat of Swedish forces from a numerically superior Russian army, which also included Skoropadsky's Cossack troops. After retreating with the remnants of their forces toPerevolochna, Mazepa and Charles XII crossed theDnieper and arrived to the Ottoman possessions. Peter I offered Turkish officials a large sum of money in exchange for delivering the hetman to him, but the sultan declared Mazepa to have legal immunity. The exhausted hetman never recovered from the defeat and died on 2 October 1709 inBender.[63]
%2c_Kyiv_2021.jpg)
In April 1710 Mazepa's general scribePylyp Orlyk was elected as his successor, serving as hetman in exile. One of Orlyk's first acts after the election was the approval of thePacts and Constitutions of the Zaporozhian Host, which introduced a democratic structure for the Cossack state. The new hetman's most important ally in realizing this program was Charles XII, who in May 1710 proclaimed himselfprotector of Ukraine. Following the declaration of war against Peter I by the sultan, in January 1711 a treaty of alliance between Orlyk and khanDevlet II Giray was signed inBakhchisaray. Soon thereafter, the hetman's troops entered Right-bank Ukraine with the support of Polish forces and theNogays, and were soon joined by many locals. However, during theSiege of Bila Tserkva Nogays fled Orlyk's ranks, raiding the surrounding country, and the hetman was forced to return to Bender. Soon thereafter, Peter I started a counteroffensive with the support of Moldovan rulerDimitrie Cantemir, but in July the tsar's forces wereencircled on thePrut river. As a result, Peter had to sign apeace agreement, according to which Russian troops were to leave Right-bank Ukraine. In March 1712 the sultan declared Orlyk to be the "Lord of Ukraine" in the lands formerly ruled by Petro Doroshenko. However, when a Cossack detachment under command of Danylo Horlenko was sent to establish the hetman's rule in the region, he met the opposition of Polish authorities. After a year of battles, on 22 April 1714 the Ottomans de-facto recognized Polish control over the Right-bank Ukraine.[64]
Having failed to win the Ottoman support for his cause, in late 1714 Orlyk left Bender for Sweden, meanwhile his supporters moved to Left-bank Ukraine, hoping for anamnesty, and Kost Hordiienko returned to the Zaporozhian Sich. From that time on, the exiled hetman would travel between European courts, looking for support in liberating Ukraine from Russian rule. Despite Orlyk's warnings about the danger of Peter I and his state to the European order and attempts to prove Ukraine's essential role for the continent, he was unable to reach his goal, and died in 1742 in Iasi.[65]
The treaties ofAdrianople andKarlowitz finalized the partition of Cossack lands in Ukraine, with Russia establishing itself on the Left Bank and in Kyiv, and after 1734 also gaining protectorate over the Zaporozhian Sich. The Ottomans preserved their sphere of influence in the lowland areas between theDanube and Dnieper, meanwhile Poland preserved control over Galicia, Volhynia, Podolia and areas surrounding Kyiv from the west.[66] Unilke the latter areas, Left-bank Ukraine retained its political and administrative structure established during the hetmanship of Bohdan Khmelnytsky. Following the destruction of Baturyn, the Hetmanate's capital was moved toHlukhiv.[67] After the Battle of Poltava, the Hetmanate's autonomy became nominal and theGovernorate of Kyiv was established.
According to articles presented to Peter I in 1709 atReshetylivka, it was proposed to include the Cossack army into the Russian military as part of a separateUkrainian Division, however the document was never approved. The Hetmanate's military continued to be recruited from among Cossack landowners, who were freed from taxes and enjoyed a number of privileges and were subordinated to Cossack starshyna. Due to the expensiveness of weapons, gunpowder, horses and other equipment, which the recruits had to provide on their own, starting from the 1720s Cossack registers were constantly understaffed. As a result, in 1735 thehost divided in two groups:Elected Cossacks, who were obliged to perform military service, andCossack helpers, who were tasked with supplying the army. Among the latter a group of landless Cossacks who worked as hired labour started to emerge.[68]
Starting from the early 18th century, free movement of peasants was gradually limited: in 1739 settlers were forbidden to move to the Hetmanate fromSloboda Ukraine, and in 1761 hetmanKyrylo Rozumovsky obliged those wishing to change their place of residence to receive a permit from their previous landowner. The economic state of Ukrainian lands suffered from the decision of Russian authorities to station three regiments of theimperial army in Ukraine on a constant basis, which was taken in the aftermath of the Battle of Poltava. This contributed to the introduction of special taxes to be paid by local inhabitants. Additionally, new trade regulations approved by Peter I banned the exports of numerous goods deemed "strategically important" and forcibly redirected trading routes through Northern Russia. As a result, Ukraine increasingly turned into a producer of raw materials for the developing industrial centres such as Moscow andSaint Petersburg. The foundation of state-owned factories put an additional strain on the traditionalguild system.[69]
The decline of cities resulting from state policies introduced under Peter I led to conflicts between local authorities based on theMagdeburg Law and the Cossack administration. The latter also became a victim of the dismantlement of local self-government by tsarist authorities: starting from 1715, Cossack colonels could only be appointed with agreement of the monarch's representative, and starting from the 1730s direct appointment of officials became the norm. During that period the Cossack elite increasingly incorporated people of non-Ukrainian origin, such as ethnicRussians andSerbs, who were considered to be more loyal to the monarchy. In 1722 Peter I created theCollegium of Little Russia as an institutuion subjected not to hisForeign Ministry, but to theGoverning Senate. This step signified that from now on the Hetmanate would be viewed by the authorities as an integral part of the wider Russian Empire. The Collegium consisted of Russian officers and was presided byStepan Velyaminov.[70]
Following the death of hetman Ivan Skoropadsky in 1722, Cossack starshyna appointedPavlo Polubotok as acting hetman for the period before the new election. However, Peter I refused to approve Polubotok's candidacy, and a confict emerged between the top Cossack officials and Velyaminov, who in the absence of a hetman attempted to subject the Hetmanate to the Collegium. In 1723 Polubotok arrived to Saint Petersburg with apetition from Cossacks, asking to permit the elcton of a new hetman and abolish the new taxes and restoration of the courts' autonomy. Enraged with the appeal, the tsar ordered Polubotok and other members of his delegation to be imprisoned in thePeter and Paul Fortress, where the acting hetman died in December 1724. Following the death of Peter I in 1725 Collegium of Little Russia was officially declared to be a "protector of the common people" in Ukraine.[71]
After the death of empressCatherine I in 1727, theSupreme Privy Council ruling from the name of underagePeter II declared the restoration of hetmanship in anticipation of a newwar against Turkey. On 1 October 1727 70-year oldMyrhorod Regiment colonelDanylo Apostol was elected as the new hetman. Next year, during his visit to Moscow, he was granted new articles from the government, which slightly increased the Hetmanate's autonomy. During his tenure, Apostol performed a revision of land properties and introduced a precisely calculated budget, the expenses for which were covered from the export tax. In 1728 a commission was organized in order to harmonize the Hetmanate's law system. Its work continued until 1744, long after the hetman's death, and the codified laws continued to remain in force until into the 19th century.[72]
After Apostol's death in 1734, power in the Hetmanate was transferred to theGoverning Council of the Hetman Office, which consisted of six members: three high-ranked officers of the Russian army stationed in Ukraine and three representatives of the Cossack administration. The real power belonged to the head of the former group. During theRusso-Turkish War of 1735-1739 Russian army's supreme commander,field marshalvon Münnich, received unlimited power in the Hetmanate and Sloboda Ukraine. Münnich openly disrespected the local law and autonomy, threatening Cossack officials with exile inSiberia, and petitioned for their territories to be transferred into his hereditary ownership in form of aduchy. The situation improved after the enthronement ofElizabeth Petrovna, who was secretly married to Ukrainian CossackOleksiy Rozumovsky. During her visit to Kyiv and Hlukhiv in 1744, Elizabeth held an audience with members of the starshyna, who petitioned her to restore their "ancient liberties", including the right to elect a hetman. Soon thereafter the Hetmanate's territory was freed from the obligation to staton troops, and local inhabitants were allowed to freely trade grain. In 1745 theMetropolitanate of Kyiv was restored, and in 1747 a special decree reinstated the position of hetman. In March 1750 Kyrylo Rozumovsky, the 22-year old younger brother of Oleksiy, was "elected" hetmanin absentia and awarded with the traditional symbols of power by the empress. After being promoted to field marshal, in July Kyrylo arrived to Hlukhiv, where he was received with great pomp.[73]
Despite initially being seen as a mere puppet of Saint Petersburg, the new hetman turned out to be a capable politician and administrator. Educated at the imperial court and married into the Russian higher nobility, he viewed Ukriane as an indivisible part of the Russian Empire, but supported the control of local elites over the Hetmanate, wishing to serve as a guarantor of its autonomy. A characteristic example of Rozumovsky's views was his decision to move the hetman's capital to Mazepa's Baturyn, where he ordered the construction of aclassical palace surrounded by a park. Baturyn was planned by him to house a new university, that would function along with the reformed Kyiv Mohyla Academy. Rozumovsky supported the official recognition of higher-ranked Cossacks and clergy as part of the nobility with rights equal to those provided to szlachta by theStatutes of Lithuania. Between 1760 and 1763 the hetman introduced a judicial reform, which replaced regimental courts by introducing a system modelled on the court system of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Another practice introduced by Rozumovsky was the organization of starshyna congresses in order to approve the government's decisions. One of such congresses held in Hlukhiv proposed a reform, according to which the hetman's post would be inherited by Rozumovsky's descendants, and called for a return to the system of relations between Ukraine and the tsar negotiated under Bohdan Khmelnytsky.[74]
The reform proposals issued by members of the Cossack elite in Hlukhiv caused concern in Saint Petersburg, and in January 1764 Rozumovsky was called up to he capital, never to return. The decision to remove Rozumovsky and liquidate the Hetmanate was taken by empressCatherine II under the influenceof her secretaryGrigory Teplov, a former mentor of the hetman, who had spent many years in Ukraine. According to Teplov, the Hetmanate's legal system, which was based on the Statute of Lithuania, was incompatible with anautocratic system due to its "republican" character. In late February Rozumovsky was forced to resign, receiving in exchange a lifelongpension and numerous landholdings in Ukraine. According to a decree issued on 21 October 1764, the hetman's post was officially liquidated, and its powers were transferred to the recreatedCollegium of Little Russia headed byGovernor GeneralPyotr Rumyantsev.[75]
Under Rumyantsev's tenure, a new revision of the Hetmanate's landholdings was performed in 1765-1767, including apopulation census. The Hetmanate's elite was increasingly incorporated into the imperial nobility, and in 1775 the Zaporozhian Sichwas liquidated. Finally, on 27 September 1781regimental division of the Hetmanate was abolished.[76] The regimental administrative system of the Little Russia Governorate was completely abolished and viceroyalties were formed. The Little Russia Governorate was then divided into three viceroyalties (provinces): Kyiv, Chernihiv and Novhorod-Siverskyi. This step meant the final and complete integration of the Ukrainian lands and society into the Russian Empire.[77] According to this act, all institutions of law and local administration inherited from the Hetmanate were dissolved and replaced with ones formed on the example of similar institutions in other parts of the empire. In 1783 Cossack regiments were replaced with regular horse regiments staffed withformer Cossacks. By 1785, when theCharter to the Gentry was issued, most members of the Cossack elite had been equalized in status withRussian nobility.[78]
After the dissolution of the Hetmanate, in 1783 the system ofserfdom would be spread to its former territories, tying the rural population to land.[79] An aggressive policy ofRussification was also started.[80][81][82][83] Many Ukrainian peasants resorted to claiming Cossack origin in order to evade becoming serfs.[84] As a result, by the late 18th century the territories of the former Hetmanate boasted a higher-than-average noble population compared to other regions of the Russian Empire.[85]
The state supreme power belonged to the General Cossack (Military) Council, while the office of head of state was presided by theHetman. There also was an important advising body Council of Officers (Starshyna). The hetman was initially chosen by the General Council, consisting of all cossacks, townspeople, clergy and even peasants. By the end of the 17th century, however, its role became more ceremonial as the hetman came to be chosen by the Council of Officers and the Hetmanate itself was turning into an authoritarian state. After 1709, theBattle of Poltava, hetman nomination was to be confirmed by the tsar. Hetman presided until he either died or was forced out by the GeneralCossack Council. The office of hetman had complete power over the administration, the judiciary, the finances, and the army. His cabinet functioned simultaneously as both thegeneral staff and as thecabinet of ministers. The Hetman also had the right to conduct foreign policy, although this right was increasingly limited by Russia in the 18th century.[86]
Each of the regimental districts making up the Hetmanate was administered by a colonel who had dual roles as supreme military and civil authority on his territory. Initially elected by that regimental district's Cossacks, by the 18th century the colonels were appointed by the Hetman. After 1709, the colonels were frequently chosen by Moscow. Each colonel's staff consisted of aquartermaster (second-in-command), judge, chancellor,aide-de-camp, and flag-bearer.[87]
Throughout the 18th century, local autonomy was gradually eroded within the Hetmanate. After theBaturyn's tragedy the autonomy was abolished, incorporating it into theKyiv Governorate. After theBattle of Poltava, hetmans elected by the Council of Officers were to be confirmed by the tsar. They served more as a military administrators and have little influence over the domestic policies. The tsar also frequently appointed the colonels of each regimental district.
| No. | Hetman — HisSerene Highness Гетьман — Його Ясновельможність | Elected (event) | Took office | Left office | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 |  |  | Bohdan Khmelnytsky (1596–1657)Зиновій-Богдан Хмельницький | 1648 (Sich) | 26 January 1648 | 6 August 1657 |
| 2 |  | | Yurii Khmelnytsky (1641–1685)Юрій Хмельницький | death of his father | 6 August 1657 | 27 August 1657 |
| 3 | .png) |  | Ivan Vyhovsky (?–1664)Іван Виговський | 1657 (Korsun) | 27 August 1657 (confirmed: 21 October 1657) | 11 September 1659 |
| 4 | | | Yurii Khmelnytsky (1641–1685)Юрій Хмельницький | 1659 (Hermanivka) | 11 September 1659 (confirmed: 11 September 1659) | October 1662 |
| – |  |  | Pavlo Teteria (1620?–1670)Павло "Тетеря" Моржковський | 1662 (Chyhyryn) | October 1662 | July 1665 |
| 5 |  |  | Ivan Briukhovetsky (1623–1668)Іван Брюховецький | 1663 (Nizhyn) | 27 June 1663 (confirmed: 27 June 1663) | 17 June 1668 |
| 6 |  |  | Petro Doroshenko (1627–1698)Петро Дорошенко | 1666 (Chyhyryn) | 10 October 1665 (confirmed: January 1666) | 19 September 1676 |
| – |  |  | Demian Mnohohrishny (1631–1703)Дем'ян Многогрішний | 1669 (Hlukhiv) | 17 December 1668 (confirmed: 3 March 1669) | April 1672 |
| 7 |  |  | Ivan Samoilovych (1630s–1690)Іван Самойлович | 1672 (Cossack Grove) | 17 June 1672 | August 1687 |
| 8 |  |  | Ivan Mazepa (1639-1709)Іван Мазепа | 1687 (Kolomak) | 4 August 1687 | 6 November 1708 |
| 9 | _1.jpg) |  | Ivan Skoropadsky (1646–1722)Іван Скоропадський | 1708 (Hlukhiv) | 6 November 1708 | 14 July 1722 |
| – |  |  | Pavlo Polubotok (1660–1724)Павло Полуботок | appointed hetman | 1722 | 1724 |
| 10 | .jpg) |  | Danylo Apostol (1654–1734)Данило Апостол | 1727 (Hlukhiv) | 12 October 1727 | 29 March 1734 |
| – |  | Yakiv Lyzohub (1675–1749)Яків Лизогуб | appointed hetman | 1733 | 1749 | |
| 11 |  |  | Kyrylo Rozumovsky (1728–1803)Кирило Розумовський | 1750 (Hlukhiv) | 22 February 1750 | 1764 |
Some historians, includingMykola Arkas, question the legitimacy of the Teteria's elections, accusing him of corruption. Some sources claim that the election of Teteria took place in January 1663. The election of Teteria led to the Povoloch Regiment Uprising in 1663, followed by greater unrest inPolissia (all inright-bank Ukraine). Moreover, the political crisis that followed the Pushkar–Barabash Uprising divided the Cossack Hetmanate completely on both banks of theDnieper River. Coincidentally, on 10 January 1663 theTsardom of Muscovy created the newLittle Russian Office (Prikaz) within its Ambassadorial Office.
Vouched for byCharles Marie François Olier, marquis de Nointel,Yurii Khmelnytsky was freed from Ottoman captivity and, along with Pasha Ibragim, was sent to Ukraine to fight the Moscow forces of Samoilovych and Romadanovsky. In 1681,Mehmed IV appointedGeorge Ducas hetman of Ukraine, replacing Khmelnytsky.
Following theanathema on Mazepa and the election ofIvan Skoropadsky, the Cossack Hetmanate was included in the RussianKyiv Governorate in December 1708. Upon the death of Skoropadsky, the elections oh hetmans were discontinued and were awarded as a gift and a type of princely title, first to Moldavian noblemen and, later, to the Russian Empress's favorites.
On 5 April 1710, the Council of Cossacks, veterans of the Battle at Poltava, electedPylyp Orlyk as the hetman of Ukraine in exile. Orlyk waged aguerrilla war at the southern borders of theRussian Empire with support from the Ottoman and Swedish empires.
The appointed hetmanMykhailo Khanenko was elected the hetman of Ukraine by a council of Sukhovii's Cossacks inUman to depose Doroshenko. In 1675John III Sobieski awarded the title to someOstap Hohol (died in 1679). Same thing happened in 1683 whenJohn III Sobieski awarded the title toStefan Kunytsky and in 1684 toAndrii Mohyla. Those awards were given during theGreat Turkish War.
| No. | Hetman — HisSerene Highness Гетьман — Його Ясновельможність | Elected (event) | Took office | Left office | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (1) |  | Mykhailo Khanenko (1620–1680)Михайло Ханенко | 1669 (Uman) | 1669 (confirmed: 2 September 1670) | 1674 | pro-Polish faction[a] |
| (2) |  | Stefan Kunytsky (?–1684)Стефан Куницький | 23 August 1683 | 23 August 1683 (confirmed: 24 August 1683) | January 1684 | pro-Polish faction |
| (3) |  | Andrii Mohyla (?–1689)Андрій Могила | January 1684 | January 1684 (confirmed: 30 January 1684) | January 1689 | pro-Polish faction |
In 1722 the governmental branch responsible for the Hetmanate was changed from the College of Foreign Affairs to the imperial Senate. That same year, the hetman's authority was undermined by the establishment of the Little Russian Collegium. It was appointed in Moscow and consisted of six Russian military officers stationed in the Hetmanate who acted as a parallel government. Its duty was ostensibly to protect the rights of rank-and-file Cossacks peasants against repression at the hands of the Cossack officers. The president of the collegiate wasBrigadierStepan Veliaminov. When the Cossacks responded by electing as HetmanPavlo Polubotok, opposed to these reforms, he was arrested and died in prison without having been confirmed by the tsar. The Little Russian Collegium then ruled the Hetmanate until 1727, when it was abolished and a new Hetman,Danylo Apostol, was elected.
A code consisting of twenty-eight articles was adopted in 1659 that regulated the relationship between the Hetmanate and Russia. It continued to be in force until the Hetmanate's dissolution. Following the election of the new Hetman, a new set of "Pereiaslav Articles" was signed by Danylo Apostol. The new document, known as the 28 Authoritative Ordinances, stipulated that:
In 1764, the office of Hetman was abolished byCatherine II, and its authority replaced by the secondLittle Russian Collegium that was transformed out of the Little-RussiaPrikaz (Office of Ukrainian Affairs) subordinated to the Ambassadorial Office of the Russian Tsardom. The collegiate consisted of four Russian appointees and four Cossack representatives headed by a president,Pyotr Rumyantsev, who proceeded to cautiously but firmly eliminate the vestiges of local autonomy. In 1781, the regimental system was dismantled and the Little Russian Collegium abolished. Two years later, peasants' freedom of movement was restricted and the process ofenserfment was completed. Cossack soldiers were integrated into the Russian army, while the Cossack officers were granted status as Russian nobles. As had previously been the practice elsewhere in the Russian Empire, lands were confiscated from the Church (during the times of the Hetmanate monasteries alone controlled 17% of the region's lands[89]) and distributed to the nobility. The territory of the Hetmanate was reorganized into three Russian provinces (governorates) whose administration was no different from that of any other provinces within the Russian Empire.[90]
Bohdan Khmelnytsky pursued a multi-vectored foreign policy for the newly created Ukrainian Cossack state.[91] "The hetman and his colleagues began to think in terms of establishing a Cossack or Ukrainian state, either independent or allied with some other state."[92] One system of opposition to Poland, who was waging war against the Hetmanate, was an "anti-Catholic block of Orthodox and Protestant states" that includedRussia,Moldavia,Wallachia,Transylvania, andSweden. Another option was to incorporate the Cossack Hetmanate into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an equal partner toGrand Duchy of Lithuania and to Poland. Another system would include Ukraine into the Ottoman orbit, similar to Wallachia, Transylvania, Moldavia, and theCrimean Khanate. Finally, Khmelnytsky developed another possibility that would have involved pitting the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth against Russia and theDon Cossacks or, alternatively, to get Poland join Venice in their fight against the Ottomans.[93]
In the early days of the uprising, Khmelnytsky recruited the military support of the Crimean Khanate, which was crucial in opposing the Polish forces for the Hetmanate.[94] However, the Crimean Tatars proved to be an unreliable allies because their actions prevented Cossack victories in potentially decisive battles. It was in the interest of the khanate to keep the Cossack uprising alive so that Poland would be weakened, but a strong rival Ukrainian state was also not favorable for the khanate.[95]
From the beginning of the uprising, Khmelnytsky also appealed to Russia, which denied giving any military aid to Khmelnytsky for almost six years.[95] Between fall 1648 and spring 1651, Khmelnytsky frequently corresponded with Ottomans, who made vague promises of military aid to the Khmelnytsky. The hetman repeatedly asked the sultan to take him as his subject, but the Ottomans never explicitly acknowledged him as such. The sultan did say that "if the hetman remains faithful", andahidnâme, will be granted, meaning that the sultan would guarantee peace and protection. However, by 1653, it became clear to Khmelnytsky that no ahidnâme would be granted. Khmelnytsky would show his letters from the sultan to the tsar to blackmail him into accepting the hetman into his suzerainty.[96] ThePereiaslav Agreement, signed in March 1654, was a deal to incorporate Ukraine under Russian protection as an autonomous duchy and led to a war between Poland and Russia.[97] Despite this treaty, Khmelnystky continued to correspond with the Ottomans in order to pit the Russians and the Ottomans against each other. He told each side that they had allied with the other only for tactical reasons.[98]
After Bohdan Khmelnytsky died in 1657, Ukraine become more instable, leading to conflicts between pro-Polish and pro-Russian factions of Cossacks. In 1658, hetmanIvan Vyhovsky negotiated theUnion of Hadiach, which would set up a three-part Commonwealth, incorporating the Cossack Hetmanate as the "Grand Duchy of Ruthenia" on equal footing with the current members: the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. However, the fall of Vyhovsky meant that this wouldn't come to fruition, as conflicts continued within the Cossack state. By 1660, the state was essentially divided along theDnieper river, with a Polish-controlled west and a Russian-controlled east.[99] In 1663, Cossacks rebelled against the Commonwealth and with the help of the Crimean Tatars in 1665, HetmanPetro Doroshenko took power, with the hopes of taking Ukraine out from under both Russia and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The two powers had completely ignored the Hetmanate's interests and partitioned the Hetmanate along the Dnieper in theTruce of Andrusovo. In 1666, Doroshenko restarted Cossack correspondence with the Ottomans.[100]
The Ottoman Empire perceived theTruce of Andrusovo as a threat and began to engage in a more active policy in the region. On 8 June 1668, Doroshenko became the sole hetman of all Ukraine and returned to the idea of putting Ukraine under Ottoman protection, knowing that it would be difficult to survive. Following negotiations, both parties agreed that 1,000janissaries wouldn't be stationed inKodak and Ukraine would not have to pay any tribute. Doroshenko also drafted 17 articles on the basis of which he would accept Ottoman protection.[101] Doroshenko issued a letter of submission to the sultan on December 24, 1668, which was confirmed by theSublime Porte by June 1669.[5] When the Commonwealth attempted to unseat Doroshenko and take over the Hetmanate, the Ottomans declared war in 1672 and marched north onKamianets-Podilskyi, with Doroshenko's Cossacks and the Crimean Tatars on their side.[102] Following the war, the Ottomans signed a treaty with the Commonwealth, which handed the region ofPodolia over to the Ottomans.[35] Continued fighting with the Commonwealth resulted in the Ottomans ceding the province of Podolia back to the Commonwealth in theTreaty of Karlowitz. In 1674, Russia invaded the Hetmanate and besieged the capital ofChyhyryn, leading the Ottomans and Crimean Tatars to send their armies to confront the Russians. The Russians withdrew before any confrontation happened, but the Ottomans razed and plundered the settlements in the Hetmanate that had been friendly to the Russians in accordance withDarü’l-İslam. Doroshenko surrendered to the Russians 2 years later, in 1676.[103]
Although the Ottomans, Poles and Russians all had evidence that the Cossack Hetmanate swore allegiance to multiple parties simultaneously, "they chose to pretend they were not aware of any dual loyalty".[104] The Ottomans did not consolidate their position in Ukraine with a strong military presence, because a frontierbuffer zone suited their interests.[105] The Ottomans referred to the Cossack Hetmanate in multiple ways. The Hetmanate under Khmelnytsky[which?] was called aneyalet;[7] under Doroshenko, it was called asanjak (province) by June 1669.[5] The Ottomans called the Cossack Hetmanate "the country of Ukraine" (Turkish:اوكراینا مملكتی/Ukrayna memleketi).[102] Historian Viktor Ostapchuk discusses the Ukrainian-Ottoman relationship in the following way:
So to what degree was Cossack Ukraine an Ottoman entity in this period? Since Islamic-style tribute (haraç) was never imposed and scarcely discussed, technically speaking, we cannot call the hetmanate an Ottomantributary. This is, of course, why we have preferred the term "vassal," of course not in the original Western medieval sense, but in the sense of the relationship between a subject state and asuzerain, a state in which there are mutual obligations—mainly non-aggression and protection of the subject by the suzerain in exchange for, when needed, military service by the subject on behalf of the suzerain, and possibly rendering tribute.[106]
| First | Regiment | Ukrainian:полк,romanized: polk, pl.Ukrainian:полки,romanized: polky |
| Second | Sotnia | Ukrainian:сотня,romanized: sotnia, pl.Ukrainian:сотні,romanized: sotni |
| Third | Kurin | Ukrainian:курінь,romanized: kurin, pl.Ukrainian:курені,romanized: kureni |
The Cossack Hetmanate was divided into military-administrative districts known asregiments (regimental districts;Ukrainian:полк,romanized: polk) whose number fluctuated with the size of the Hetmanate's territory. The first regimental districts were confirmed by theTreaty of Kurukove in 1625, among which wereBila Tserkva Regiment,Kaniv Regiment,Korsun Regiment,Kyiv Regiment,Pereiaslav Regiment,Cherkasy Regiment. All of them were situated within theKyiv Voivodeship. According to theTreaty of Zboriv, there were 23 regiments. In 1649, when the Hetmanate controlled both the right and left banks, it included 16 such districts.
Under Khmelnytskyi, the territory ruled by the hetman included the territories of Kyiv, Bratslav and Chernihiv voivodeships, as well asZaporozhia and even someBelarusian lands nominally part ofLithuania.[15] In 1667 the signing ofTruce of Andrusovo between theTsardom of Russia andPolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth secured 10 regiments ofleft-bank Ukraine for Russia, including Kyiv, while the other six stayed inright-bank Ukraine as part of thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
The regimental districts were further divided intosotnias (Ukrainian:сотня), which were administered bysotnyks (Ukrainian:сотник). The lowest division was thekurin (Ukrainian:курінь).[87] Sotnias were named by the central town, where sotnyk resided with his council.
| Regiment | Ukrainian | Coat of arms | Years of formation | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chyhyryn Regiment | Чигиринський |  | 1625–1678 | other formation: 1704–1712 |
| Cherkasy Regiment | Черкаський |  | 1625–1686 | merged with Pereiaslav |
| Korsun Regiment | Корсунський |  | 1625–1712 | |
| Bila Tserkva Regiment | Білоцерківський |  | 1625–1712 | |
| Kaniv Regiment | Канівський |  | 1625–1712 | |
| Pereiaslav Regiment | Переяславський |  | 1625–1782 | |
| Kyiv Regiment | Київський |  | 1625–1782 | |
| Myrhorod Regiment | Миргородський |  | 1625–1782 | |
| Ovruch Regiment | Овруцький |  | 1648–? | |
| Irkliiv Regiment | Іркліївський |  | 1648–1648 | other formation: 1658–1659 merged with Kropyvna |
| Sosnytsia Regiment | Сосницький | | 1648–1648 | other formation: 1663–1668 merged with Chernihiv |
| Chornobyl Regiment | Чорнобильський |  | 1648–1649 | other formation: 1651–1651 |
| Borzna Regiment | Борзнянський |  | 1648–1649 | other formation: 1654–1655 merged with Chernihiv |
| Zhyvotiv Regiment | Животівський | | 1648–1649 | merged with Vinnytsia |
| Ichnia Regiment | Ічнянський |  | 1648–1649 | merged with Pryluky |
| Hadiach Regiment | Гадяцький |  | 1648–1649 | merged with Poltava |
| Zviahel Regiment | Звягельський Волинський | | 1648–1649 | also known as Volhynia |
| Ostropil Regiment | Остропільський Волинський | | 1648–1649 | also known as Volhynia other formation: 1657–1658 |
| Podillia Regiment | Подільський Могилівський | | 1648–1649 | also known as Mohyliv other formation: 1657–1676 |
| Liubartiv Regiment | Любартівський | | 1648–1649 | |
| Lysianka Regiment | Лисянський | | 1648–1657 | split among others |
| Bratslav Regiment | Брацлавський |  | 1648–1667 | other formation: 1685–1712 merged with Vinnytsia |
| Vinnytsia Regiment | Вінницький Кальницький |  | 1648–1667 | also known as Kalnyk merged with Chechelnyk |
| Uman Regiment | Уманський | | 1648–1675 | |
| Pavoloch Regiment | Паволоцький | | 1648–1675 | |
| Poltava Regiment | Полтавський |  | 1648–1675 | |
| Lubny Regiment | Лубенський |  | 1648–1781 | |
| Nizhyn Regiment | Ніжинський |  | 1648–1782 | |
| Pryluky Regiment | Прилуцький |  | 1648–1782 | |
| Chernihiv Regiment | Чернігівський |  | 1648–1782 | |
| Kropyvna Regiment | Кропивнянський |  | 1649–1658 | split between Lubny and Pereiaslav |
| Chechelnyk Regiment | Чечельницький | | 1650–1673 | |
| Novhorod Regiment | Новгородський | .svg) | 1653–1654 | other formation: 1668 merged with Starodub |
| Belarus Regiment | Білоруський Чауський | | 1654–1659 | also known as Chausy |
| Pinsk-Turiv Regiment | Пінсько-Турівський | | 1654–1659 | |
| Starodub Regiment | Стародубський |  | 1654–1782 | |
| Kremenchuk Regiment | Кременчуцький | | 1661–1666 | |
| Hlukhiv Regiment | Глухівський |  | 1663–1665 | merged with Nizhyn |
| Zinkiv Regiment | Зіньківський |  | 1671–1782 | name changed to Hadiach |
| Fastiv Regiment | Фастівський | | 1684–1712 | merged with Bila Tserkva |
| Bohuslav Regiment | Богуславський |  | 1685–1712 |
The capital was the city ofChyhyryn. After theTreaty of Andrusovo, in 1669 the capital was transferred toBaturyn, as Chyhyryn became part of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (located inright-bank Ukraine). After theSack of Baturyn in 1708 conducted by the Russian army ofAleksandr Menshikov, the area was incorporated into theKyiv Governorate and the city ofHlukhiv nominally served as the residence of the Hetman.
Zaporozhian Sich enjoyed a distinct status, functioning as an autonomous region known as theArmy of Lower Zaporozhia, although according to the Treaty of Eternal Peace of 1686 it was nominally dependent both on the hetman and the tsar. A Cossack administrative system also existed in the neighbouringSloboda Ukraine, although the region never became part of the Hetmanate and was ruled directly from Moscow.[15]
In 1764-65 both Cossack Hetmante and Sloboda Ukraine were liquidated and transformed into the Little Russia Governorate and the Sloboda Ukraine Governorate. On the territory of the Zaporozhian Sich theNovorossiya Governorate was created. The general-governor of all Ukrainian territories becamePyotr Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky.
During the entire period of its existence, theeconomy of the Cossack Hetmanate [uk] remained mainlyagrarian-feudal, althoughpan-European trends to increase the number of factories and the share of industry in the sectoral structure ofGDP were noticeable.[107]
The Hetmanate had its ownbudget, its ownfinancial system andmoney circulation. There was a wide system of taxes in theMilitary Treasury (Ukrainian:Скарбниця Військова,romanized: Skarbnytsia Viiskova). One of the largest sources of revenue was taxes on mills and breweries. Income from the mills was collected by specialwatchmen. There were redemptions forhorilka (Ukrainian:горілка; Ukrainian term forvodka),tar andtobacco. A significant collection came to theMilitary Treasury from the beehives. Travel, transit and internal customs duties were charged. In the Hetmanate there was a system of direct taxation of the population. Land rent was also one of the most effective sources of income.[citation needed]
The finances of the Hetmanate were managed by theheneralnyi pidskarbii (Ukrainian:генеральний підскарбій), who headed theMilitary Treasury, which was renamed theGeneral Treasury Chancellery (Ukrainian:Генеральна скарбова канцелярія,romanized: Heneralna skarbova kantseliariia). DuringKhmelnytsky's presidency, the hetman personally controlled the financial affairs. The treasury was replenished at the expense of the border trade duty on export and import goods. The population also paid in-kind tribute to the army, land rent, taxes for the production of alcoholic beverages, for the use of mills, rent, ore and tar factories, and the sale of tobacco. Khmelnytsky probably tried to mint his own coin inChyhyryn, mentions of which date back to 1649 and 1652.[108][109]
A certain idea of the value of money and goods in the second half of the 18th century is given by the descriptions and valuation in money of the property of Cossacks and peasants of the Mena and Borzna sotnias of theChernihiv regiment in 1766. So, a log house with hay and a shed cost from 10 to 25karbovanets, a log barn – 3 karbovanets, a cart for horses – 40 to 50kopecks, a plow – 12 kopecks, a fattened pig – 1,5 kopecks, a sheep – 50 kopecks, a goose – 10 kopecks, chicken – 2 kopecks, plain coat – 1,2 kopecks, striped hat – 30 kopecks, boots – 20 to 30 kopecks.[110]
As the Cossack Hetmanate emerged out of thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, agriculture remained the main branch of the economy. One of the main causes of theKhmelnytsky Uprising was the anti-feudal struggle of the domestic peasantry. Therefore, immediately after the formation of their own state, all the property of the old Polish magnate nobility was expropriated by the people. Magnates, nobility, and tenants were driven out, and their lands, livestock, and property were transferred to Cossacks, peasants, burghers, and the state administration. The legislation of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth lost its force and the peasants became free. The temporary partial return to the old feudal norms after the defeat in theBattle of Berestechko and theTreaty of Bila Tserkva only strengthened the resistance of the peasantry to the "hereditary lords". Finally, on the territory of the Ukrainian state, thefolwark (Ukrainian:filvarka) manor system of management, the land ownership of the crown land, Polish and Ukrainian magnates and nobility, and theCatholic Church were eliminated after the victory in theBattle of Batih (1652).[citation needed]
The main part of the liberated territories (and it was a significant land fund: the kingdom owned about 150 cities and towns, magnates and nobles owned about 1,500, and the Catholic Church – 50 estates), as well as uninhabited lands, passed to the state fund, which was owned by theMilitary Treasury is a component of the apparatus of the Hetman-Starshyna administration. The supreme administrator of the land was the hetman, locally it was managed by colonels and centurions. The lands of Orthodox monasteries and the higher clergy, small nobility, Cossacks and burghers remained in private ownership.[citation needed]
Personally, free peasants had to pay a tax to theMilitary Treasury in the form of a monetary rent. Peasants of free military villages considered the land they cultivated to be their property. In the second half of the 17th – at the beginning of the 18th century, it was freely inherited, given, sold, bought. In privately owned, temporary-conditional possessions, the peasants' right to use the land was limited, and when buying and selling land, only the right to its possession was transferred with existing coercions in favor of the land owners.[citation needed]
After theKhmelnytsky Uprising, 80-90% of peasants owned land. According to the materials of the Russian generalRumyantsev's description of "Little Russia", the peasants of the Starshyna, monastery, and government were divided into those who owned land and those who were landless. Allotment owners bequeathed land, leased it, bought and sold it, organized farms. The number of wealthy peasants, who concentrated a large part of allotment land and livestock, increased. The landless commoners either engaged in agriculture on senior, monastic, state land allocated to them for temporary use, or lived off the sale of labor.[111] Some landless peasants kept a lot of cattle, beehives, were engaged in crafts and trades. Some of them had up to 30 to 40 heads of cattle, 20 to 30 pigs, 30 to 40 horses, and up to 300 sheep. Some peasants, the so-called servants, did not have any farms and constantly lived in the foreman's estates either "for subsistence" or for an annual fee (2 to 10 karbovanets).[citation needed]
From the very beginning of the existence of the state, Starshyna land ownership existed in two forms: private (hereditary) and rank (temporary). The Starshyna's attempt to take possession of the estates of the exiled Polish and Ukrainian lords did not find support from Khmelnytsky, who in his policy took into account the interests of hereditary Cossacks, the intransigence of peasants and ordinary Cossacks to the restoration of feudal land ownership. The Starshyna society increased land ownership at the expense of buying land from Cossacks and peasants. As a reward for serving in the Cossack army, the sergeant received land, villages and towns from the state land fund for his "rank" (position). These were temporary possessions, similar to theWestern Europeanbenefice.[citation needed]
Later, the hetmans were actively involved in the gradual distribution of state lands among their followers. The data of theGeneral Investigation of Estates (Ukrainian:Генеральне слідство про маєтності,romanized: Heneralne slidstvo pro maietnosti) about the growth of Starshyna land ownership in the second half of the 17th and early 18th centuries was conducted in 1729–1730 in order to regulate land relations. Only in theChernihiv,Starodub,Nizhyn, Pereiaslav, andLubny regiments 518 settlements passed into the ownership of the Starshyna until 1708. In the 1730s already more than 35% of the cultivated land of the Hetmanate was the private property of the Starshyna. The sources of the growth of Starshyna land ownership were: the pledge of free lands; acquisition, often forced, or seizure of Cossack and peasant lands; hetman grants and awards of thetsarist government "for service to the great sovereign" from the fund of free military estates. UnderDanylo Apostol, the main land fund was distributed. The difference between hereditary and temporary conditional ownership has practically disappeared.[citation needed]
During the second half of the 17th and the first quarter of the 18th centuriesmonastic andchurch land ownership increased significantly due to the acquisition and seizure of Cossack-peasant and public lands. According to theGeneral Investigation of Estates, in 1729–1730 in nine regiments (except Starodub) monasteries owned 305 estates and 11,073 yards of the commons, which was more than 20% of the total number of yards.[citation needed]
The Hetman-Starshyna administration tried to limit monastic land ownership. On the submission of Danylo Apostol, the tsarist government by decree of 1728 prohibited spiritual landowners from buying land, only allowed private individuals to bequeath it to monasteries. Monasteries had a monopoly on distilling and trading vodka in their estates. The church obtained the right to free ownership of a part of public lands in the form of donations. Communities allocated courtyards, fields, and hayfields to priests for farming.[citation needed]
The 17th and 18th centuries were the period of the turbulent process of the emergence and development of cities, the growth of their role in the economic life of Ukraine. However, unlike the cities of Western Europe, they retained their feudal and agrarian character and were small. The process of formation of the industrial and commercial population was slow. According to the census of 1666, in 36 cities ofleft-bank Ukraine, 26% of residents were artisans. As a result of the policy of the Moscow authorities, which limited the development of Ukrainian industry, at the end of the 18th century, among the population of the Hetmanate, artisans made up a small number: in Chernihiv – 4,5%, inHadiach – 16% of all residents. Significant craft centers were Nizhyn – 42,3% of artisans' yards,Starodub – 48,5%. 4,000 artisans worked in Kyiv.[107]
In the 1720s, under the influence of the transformations ofPeter I, the construction of large centralized factories began in the Hetmanate. The emergence of manufactories took place in two ways: small enterprises were transformed into large independent productions, workshops were subordinated to merchant capital, which actively penetrated into production. A particularly favorable environment for the emergence of manufacturing production was urban and rural industries. They were not limited to shop workshops, therefore they were more suitable for the introduction of new mechanical processes, progressive forms of organization of production and work. A cadre of permanent workers was being formed who lived off earnings in industry.[citation needed]
Distillation (brewing, mead-making) was developed. Raw materials for the production of vodka and beer were rye, barley, buckwheat, oats, and wheat. Small distilleries and breweries operated in every farm, estate, and village of Ukraine. Distilling yielded a profit 2-4 times higher than the sale of bread. At the end of the 18th century, there were more than 10,000 guralenes. In the Hetmanate and theSloboda Ukraine region, distilleries belonged to monasteries, the Cossack Starshyna, merchants, burghers, Cossacks and peasants. By the end of the 18th century, distilling had completely passed to the nobility. In the 18th century, most distilleries were small-scale. A certain part of them in terms of size and equipment belonged to the initial forms of manufactories. These were large distilleries, they were served by an average of 14 people. Distillation had a high degree of marketability. We bought raw materials, fuel, equipment, sold products – retail in taverns, wholesale. Metallurgical production continued to develop, the most common form of which was ore mining.[citation needed]
A special place in the industry belonged to the production ofsaltpeter. The center of this industry was the basins of thePsel,Vorskla,Oril, lower Dnieper andBuh rivers, the areas nearChuhuiv andPutyvl. During the period of Polish-noble rule, there were almost 20 saltpeter factories, the production of which was monopolized by the Polish government. During theUprising in the middle of the 17th century, the saltpeter works were controlled by the Cossack army. In the 18th century, state-owned and private saltpeter vats were built, belonging to Cossack Starshyna, Cossacks and townspeople. The raw material for obtaining saltpeter was the soil of hillforts, old graves, fortress ramparts and ashes. From the 1740s, the artificial on-board method of producing saltpeter spread. From the end of the 1730s, saltpeter companies were organized:Oposhnianska (united saltpeter producers ofOpishnia), merchant Shchedrov, Russian (plants were in theKharkiv Governorate andPoltava Regiment), and others. The main buyer of Ukrainian saltpeter in the 18th century was the Russian treasury. The forced sales system had a negative impact on the development of saltpeter production. The treasury owed a lot to the factory owners. Only in the 1790s, the free sale of saltpeter, which remained from the supply to the treasury, was allowed. This contributed to the expansion of saltpeter production.[citation needed]
The Hetmanate coincided with a period of cultural flowering in Ukraine, particularly during the reign of hetmanIvan Mazepa.[citation needed]
In the construction ofdwellings, for a long time, the type of "house in two halves" characteristic of Ukrainian housing was preserved,[clarification needed]but in the case of the Cossack Starshyna society, they differed in the number of rooms and interior decoration. In many respects, the interior of the home of the Cossack Starshyna still resembled folk dwellings. The traditions of painting windows, doors, strollers, and baby carriages were preserved. The inner walls of the houses were covered with wallpaper. The rooms were decorated with carpets made by local artisans. Stoves for heating were lined with tiles. They bought mirrors,chandeliers, dishes of silver and porcelain,teapots, coffee pots, spoons, knives, beer bottles, silver trays, cups, etc.[112]
Clothes do not only perform a purely utilitarian function, but are also the subject of aesthetic tastes and preferences that form a style characteristic of different eras. In general, the clothes of the Starshyna society, both male and female, did not differ from theEastern European style of the time. Men'szhupan (robes),kuntush, various belts were worn both in thePolish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and in Ukraine, just like the women's clothing – skirts, corsets (laces) were typical for the whole ofEurope in the 18th century.[113] The elements of the outfit differed, presumably, in the details of the cut, decorativeness, while the fabrics used were common to all of Europe:velvet,satin,brocade,taffeta,textile,silk, which were imported to Ukraine fromSilesia andSaxony. Trade in these goods was conducted very actively, which indicates the demand for them.[112]
Interestingly, the clothes had value not only for women. According to sources, including diaries and property descriptions, men also attached importance to their wardrobe, although it was not as varied. The basic outerwear for men, kuntush, zhupan orkaftan, has been traditional for a long time. Zhupans or kaftans are mentioned in documents of the 16th century. Silk and cloth belts were quite expensive. In Ukraine, as well as in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, zhupans and kuntush remained the main men's clothing until the end of the 18th century. The clothes of a Cossack Starshyna indicated belonging to a certain society, where the accepted style prevailed. At the same time, there was a formation of an individual style that distinguished a person among a certain social group. Clothes also had a family value. It was a tradition to leave the clothes of the deceased in the family, giving away some of them after death. Among the things that were given great importance in the Starshyna society were jewelry. This can be traced to dowry registers, wills, property descriptions. Jewels, which are ornaments made of gold, silver, various precious stones –rubies,emeralds,sapphires,diamonds,pearls,corals – were called "jewels". They were used as capital investments, for example, to provide a dowry for daughters, and at the same time had a symbolic value, certifying status of their master, and were also family heirlooms.
The household was important not only because it was the main source of livelihood for the master and his family, but also because it was the main support for military service. The fighting capacity of the Cossack army, the duration of military operations, and often the outcome of the entire war depended on the supply of food.[114] Daily food was fish. It was dried, salted and boiled. The typical food of the Cossacks wasvarenyky (dumplings),halushky,borshch. The Cossacks consumed mainly boiled, stewed and baked food, thus, peculiar taste stereotypes and habits developed. Popular food in theSich was porridge-like dishes made from various grains: solomakha (Ukrainian:соломаха), teteria (Ukrainian:тетеря), shcherba (Ukrainian:щерба), bratko (Ukrainian:братко). Kulish (Ukrainian:куліш) was also often prepared. One of the peculiarities of the Cossack diet was the insignificant consumption of baked bread, because there was not always enough flour. One of the most famous first courses is the Cossack teteria, which is quite similar to the kulish. Simple and easy-to-prepare meals were nutritious, but above all, they kept for a long time. Eastern influence is also felt on the derivative cuisine. Teteria and solomakha became dishes that were formed on the steppe spaces in close contact withnomads.
Meat was an essential addition to the diet of the Cossacks both in summer and in winter. The food reserves of the Cossacks were constantly replenished. Those who lived in winter quarters especially tried. Their main task was to supply the Cossacks with various foods – from meat, flour, lard, cereals to vegetables and fruits. During military campaigns, the diet was completely different, and the set of products also changed. When going on a campaign, a Cossack had to take with him a supply of food, which should last for several months. That is why they took something that did not spoil and could be used for a long time on the road. The basis of the ration in the campaigns was sukhari (rusks), cereals, flour,salo (salo is a high-calorie product – more was used in reserve: it can be stored for a long time, and also used in canning products). Cossacks carried water in wooden trunks tied to the saddle. Fishing nets were also taken on hikes.[114] Among the sweet dishes in Cossack times, the following were known:kvas (Ukrainian:квас),kutia (Ukrainian:кутя) with honey, kutia with poppy seeds and nuts, rice with honey and cinnamon, kutia with raisins and nuts, soup made of dried apples, plums and cherries (uzvar). Traditional local tonic drinks were weak beer and fruit kvas.
In general, the food was divided into daily, festive and fasting. There were differences in the diet of wealthy Cossacks and the poor. Often the poor were satisfied with empty borshch (without meat), fish andsauerkraut. Food was cooked in an oven (in the winter in the house, in the kitchen, in the summer in the summer kitchen or in the summer oven in the yard). Every family needed simple utensils: aDutch oven (Ukrainian:чавун,romanized: chavun), bowls, pans, rohachi (Ukrainian:рогачі), pokers.
Visitors from abroad commented on the high level of literacy, even among commoners, in the Hetmanate. There was a higher number of elementary schools per population in the Hetmanate than in either neighboring Russia or Poland. In the 1740s, of 1,099 settlements within seven regimental districts, as many as 866 had primary schools.[115]Paul of Aleppo, travelling through what is now Ukraine in 1654 and 1656, wrote: "[...] throughout the whole of the Kozak Land, we noted а beautiful trait which aroused our interest: they аll almost without exception, even their wives and daughters, know how to read and know the order of the mass and the church song." A German visitor to the Hetmanate, writing in 1720, commented on how the son of HetmanDanylo Apostol, who had never left Ukraine, was fluent in the Latin, Italian, French, German, Polish and Russian languages.[116] Under Mazepa, the Kyiv collegium was transformed intoan academy and attracted some of the leading scholars of the Orthodox world.[117] It was the largest educational institution in lands ruled by Russia.[118] Mazepa establishedanother collegium in Chernihiv. These schools largely used the Polish and Latin languages and provided a classic western education to their students.[118] Many of those trained in Kyiv – such asFeofan Prokopovich – would later move to Moscow, so that Ivan Mazepa's patronage not only raised the level of culture in Ukraine but also in Moscow itself.[117] A musical academy was established in 1737 in the Hetmanate's then-capital ofHlukhiv. Among its graduates wereMaksym Berezovsky (the first composer from the Russian Empire to be recognized in Europe) andDmitry Bortniansky.
In addition to traditionalprinting presses inKyiv, new printing shops were established inNovhorod-Siverskyi andChernihiv. Most of the books published were religious in nature, such as thePeternik, a book about the lives of the monks of the Kyiv-Pechersk monasatary. Books on local history were compiled. In a book written by Inokentiy Gizel in 1674, the theory that Moscow was the heir of ancient Kyiv was developed and elaborated for the first time.[119]
Among the cultural and educational interests that characterize the leisure time of a Cossack Starshyna, there is a passion for music. A love of music, singing, and dancing was cultivated in the Cossack Starshyna environment. Things that brought aesthetic pleasure, provided comfort to everyday life, were musical instruments. Keyboard instruments such as theclavichord were widespread. Also violin andhorns,husli (Ukrainian:гуслі) and bandura (Ukrainian:бандура).[120] While on a campaign, the Starshyna society danced, on church holidays they sang. Cossacks were extremely fond of church singing.
A common phenomenon of the cultural life of the Hetmanate was the performances of the so-called traveling diaks (Ukrainian:дяки), students of the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy or collegiums, who earned money for living and studying during the holidays by performing popular acts – interludes. There was also such a kind of intellectual pursuit of time as a game of chess. Among the popular leisure activities was playing cards, especially in winter. In 1727, such card games as picket, lumberjack, and fantas were mentioned. They played for money, sometimes a present could be, for example, a horse. Often the Starshyna had large apiaries and treated this business not only as a source of income, but also liked to rest there. Also, drinking coffee became a certain means of rest and relaxation in the environment of the Starshyna society.
The free time of the Cossacks was filled with various physical exercises: competitions in swimming, running, rowing, wrestling, fistfights, etc. All these and other exercises had a military orientation and were a good means of physical training of the Cossacks. Among the Zaporozhian Cossacks, various systems of martial arts have become widespread. The most famous formed the basis of the Cossackhopak (Ukrainian:гопак) dance.[121]
In 1620 The Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople reestablished the Kyiv Metropolis for the Eastern Orthodox communities that refused to join theUnion of Brest. In 1686 the Orthodox Church in Ukraine changed from being under the jurisdiction of the Patriarch in Constantinople to being under the authority of thePatriarch of Moscow. Nevertheless, before and after this date local Church leaders pursued a policy of independence.[122] Hetman Ivan Mazepa established very close relations with Metropolitan Varlaam Iasynsky (reigned 1690–1707). Mazepa provided donations of land, money and entire villages to the Church. He also financed the building of numerous churches in Kyiv, including the Church of the Epiphany and the cathedral ofSt. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery, and restoration of older churches such asSaint Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, which had deteriorated to near ruin by the mid-17th century, in a style known asUkrainian Baroque.[123]
The social structure of the Hetmanate consisted of five groups: the nobility, the Cossacks, the clergy, the townspeople, and the peasants.
As had been the case under Poland, the nobility continued to be the dominant social class during the Hetmanate, although its composition and source of legitimacy within the new society had changed radically. During theKhmelnytsky Uprising, thePolish nobles andPolonized Ruthenianmagnates fled the territory of the Hetmanate. As a result, the noble estate now consisted of a merger between the nobility that had stayed in the territory of the Hetmanate (old noble families that did not succumb to Polonization and lesser nobles who had participated in the uprising on the side of the Cossacks against Poland) with members of the emergent Cossack officer class. Unlike the Polish nobles whose lands were redistributed, the nobles loyal to the Hetmanate retained their privileges, their lands, and the services of the peasants. Together, the old nobles and the new Cossack officers became known as the Distinguished Military Fellows (Znachni Viiskovi Tovaryshi). Thus, the nature of noble status was fundamentally changed. It no longer depended on ancient heredity, but instead on loyalty to the Hetmanate.[124] Over time, however, Cossack officer lands and privileges too became hereditary, and the Cossack noble and officer class acquired huge landed estates comparable to those of the Polish-Ruthenian magnates whom they had replaced and emulated.[45]
Most Cossacks failed to enter the noble estate and continued their role as free soldiers. The lower rank Cossacks often resented their wealthier brethren and were responsible for frequent rebellions, particularly duringthe Ruin, a period of instability and civil war in the 17th century. These resentments were frequently exploited by Russia. TheZaporizhian Sich served as a refuge for Cossacks fleeing the Hetmanate as it had been prior to Khmelnytsky's uprising.
During the 1760s Cossacks comprised approximately 45% of the Hetmanate's population.[125] After 1735 Cossacks that were not part of starshyna, were split intoElected Cossacks (Ukrainian:виборні козаки) and Helper Cossacks (Ukrainian:підпомічники). Cossack privileges were preserved only for elected Cossacks, who were exempted from any duties, but were obliged to perform military service in person with their own equipment, weapons and horses.[126]
Similarly to Cossack starshyna, noble szlachta identity became widespread amongst ordinary Cossacks. Both Cossack and szlachta terms were used as synonyms. For example a total of 35.2% of appeals to thePoltava city court in 1777-1780 concerned insults of the noble honor. Similar lawsuits came from both starshyna and ordinary Cossacks, which suggest to the existence in the Cossack society of that period of ideas that were very similar to the ideas of the nobility of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth of the XVII century.[127]
.jpg)
During the Hetmanate, theRoman Catholic Church andUniate clergy were driven from Ukraine. The "black", ormonastic,Orthodox clergy enjoyed a very high status in the Hetmanate, controlling 17% of the Hetmanate's land. Monasteries were exempt from taxes and at no times were peasants bound to monasteries allowed to forgo their duties. The Orthodox hierarchy became as wealthy and powerful as the most powerful nobles.[128] The "white", or married, Orthodox clergy were also exempt from paying taxes. Priests' sons often entered the clergy or the Cossack civil service. It was not uncommon for nobles or Cossacks to become priests and vice versa.[128]
.jpg)
Twelve cities within the Hetmanate enjoyedMagdeburg rights, in which they were self-governing and controlled their own courts, finances and taxes. Wealthy townsmen were able to hold office within the Hetmanate or even to buy titles of nobility. Because the towns were generally small (the largest towns ofKyiv andNizhyn had no more than 15,000 inhabitants), this social group was not very significant relative to other social groups.[128]
Peasants comprised the majority of the Hetmanate's population. Although the institution of forced labor by the peasants was reduced significantly by theKhmelnytsky Uprising, in which the Polish and Ruthenian[129] landlords and magnates were expelled from the territory controlled by the Hetman, those nobles loyal to the Hetman as well as the Orthodox Church expected the peasants under their control to continue to provide their services. Thus as a result of the uprising, approximately 50% of the territory consisted of lands given to Cossack officers or free self-governing villages controlled by the peasants, 33% of the land was owned by Cossack officers and nobles, and 17% of the land was owned by the Church. With time, the amount of territory owned by the nobles and officers gradually grew at the expense of the lands owned by peasants and rank-and-file Cossacks, and the peasants were forced to work increasingly more days for their landlords. Nevertheless, their obligations remained lighter than they had been prior to the uprising; and until the end of the Hetmanate, peasants were never fully enserfed and retained the right to move.[130]
The foundation of the Cossack state by Bohdan Khmelnytskyi played an important role inUkrainian history, as for the first time a major part of ethnic Ukrainian lands were united under one rule as part of a de-facto independent polity. As a result, the Hetmanate's legacy was used as an inspiration in attempts to establish an independent Ukrainian state in the following centuries.[131]
In 1785, ten years after the dissolution of the Hetmanate's autonomy by the Russian Empire,Catherine II issued herCharter of the Nobility, according to which descendants of Cossack starshyna, who wished to enter into theRussian nobility, had to justify their claims of noble origin. After the establishment of the Imperial Heraldry Office in 1797, applicants would examine numerous treaties between the hetmans and tsars, as well as Polish-Lithuanian charters and other historical documents, using the heritage of the Cossack state in order to prove their noble status. This led to a renewed interest for the past among the Ukrainian public and indirectly contributed to the emergence of a national movement in Dnieper Ukraine.[132]
The image of Cossack Ukraine as a democratic and freedom-loving society as opposed to despotic Muscovy, which became a common trope introduced by popular works such as theHistory of Ruthenians, led to calls for liberation from the Russian rule and restoration of Ukrainian statehood, and inspired theUkrainian national revival of the 19th century.[133]
.jpg)
![Coat of arms[1] of Cossack Hetmanate](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aCoA_Hetmanate.svg)
