Following the Arab Muslim conquest of Egypt in the 7th century, the treatment of the Coptic Christians who did notconvert ranged from relativetolerance toopen persecution.[42][43][44][45] Historically, the Copts suffered from waves of persecution giving way to relative tolerance in cycles that varied according to the local ruler and other political and economic circumstances.[41] Themes of persecution and martyrdom constitute a significant part ofCoptic identity due to historic and current conflicts.[46]
While an integral part of broader Egyptian society and culture, Copts also preserve distinct religious traditions and some unique cultural elements.Coptic music is thought to incorporate some influences fromearlier Egyptian musical traditions.[51] Copts also maintain the use of theCoptic calendar, which is based on the ancientEgyptian calendar and remains significant in their liturgical practices.
Many Copts view Arab identity as closely associated with Islam and may not fully identify with it,[52] but they also have anational identity shared with other Egyptians.[52][53] Copts and Muslim Egyptians are recognized as being physically indistinguishable.[54][55] In urban cities of Egypt such as Cairo and Alexandria, Copts have a relatively higheducational attainment,wealth index, and a strong representation inwhite-collar job types. However, most Copts live in Upper Egypt, mainly working in blue collar jobs, but with limited representation in security agency work.[56] The majority of demographic, socio-economic, and health indicators are similar among Coptic Christians andMuslims in Egypt.[56]
The English language adopted the wordCopt in the 17th century fromNeo-LatinCoptus, Cophtus, which derives from theArabic collectivequbṭ / qibṭقبط "the Copts" withnisba adjectivequbṭī, qibṭīقبطى, pluralaqbāṭأقباط; Alsoquftī, qiftī (where the Arabic/f/ reflects the historical Coptic/p/) an Arabisation of theCoptic word ⲁⲓⲅⲩⲡⲧⲓⲟⲛaiguption (Bohairic for "Egyptian" or in relation to Egypt) or ⲕⲩⲡⲧⲁⲓⲟⲛkuptaion (Sahidic). The Coptic word in turn represents an adaptation of the Greek term for the indigenous people of Egypt,Aigýptios (Αἰγύπτιος).[57]
The Greek term for Egypt,Aígyptos (Ancient Greek:Αἴγυπτος), itself derives from theEgyptian language, but dates to a much earlier period, being attested already inMycenaean Greek asa3-ku-pi-ti-jo (lit. "Egyptian"; used here as a man's name). This Mycenaean form likely comes fromMiddle Egyptianḥwt kꜣ ptḥ (reconstructed pronunciation /ħawitˌkuʀpiˈtaħ/ → /ħajiʔˌkuʀpiˈtaħ/ → /ħəjˌkuʔpəˈtaħ/,Egyptological pronunciationHut-ka-Ptah), literally "estate/palace of thekꜣ ("double" spirit) ofPtah" (compareAkkadianāluḫi-ku-up-ta-aḫ), the name of the temple complex of the godPtah atMemphis (and asynecdoche for the city of Memphis and the region around it).
The termAigýptios in Greek came to designate the native Egyptian population inRoman Egypt (as distinct from Greeks, Romans, Jews, etc.). After theMuslim conquest of Egypt (639-646) it became restricted to those Egyptians adhering to the Christian religion.[58]
In their historicCoptic language, which represents the final stage of theEgyptian language, there is no distinct term equivalent to Copt, as a designation separate fromEgyptian. Instead, terms such asrem en kēme (in theSahidic dialect)ⲣⲙⲛⲕⲏⲙⲉ,lem en kēmi (Fayyumic), andrem en khēmi (Bohairic)ⲣⲉⲙ̀ⲛⲭⲏⲙⲓ are attested, all of which literally mean "people of Egypt" or "Egyptians"; cf.Egyptianrmṯ nkmt,Demoticrmt n kmỉ. These expressions are not specific to Christian Egyptians, and the phraseNiRemenkēmi enKhristianos (ⲚⲓⲢⲉⲙ̀ⲛⲭⲏⲙⲓ ̀ⲛ̀Ⲭⲣⲏⲥⲧⲓ̀ⲁⲛⲟⲥ,the Christian people of Egypt, in theSahidic dialect) may be considered the closest formulation for distinguishing Copts from the broaderEgyptian population.
The Arabic wordqibṭ "Copt" has also been connected[by whom?] to the Greek name of the town of Kóptos (Koine Greek:Κόπτος, nowQifṭ; CopticKebt andKeft) inUpper Egypt. This association may have contributed to making "Copt" the settled form of the name.[59]
In the 20th century, some Egyptian nationalists and intellectuals in the context ofPharaonism began using the termqubṭ in the historical sense to refer to all ethnic Egyptians, both Christians and Muslims.[60]
After the conquest of Egypt byAlexander the Great in 332 B.C., the country came under the rule of GreekPtolemaic kings. While the majority of the population remained Egyptian, foreign settlers of both Greek and non-Greek origin emigrated to Egypt during that period. While 10% may stand as a very approximate figure for the total immigrant population in Ptolemaic Egypt, including both Greeks and non-Greeks, this figure has been challenged as excessive.[61] The native Egyptian population, which remained Egyptian in language and culture, spoke the latest stage of theEgyptian language, which came to be known later asCoptic. The creation ofCoptic as a coherent writing system to express the Egyptian language undoubtedly served to cement the distinction between the native population in Egypt and the ruling Greeks.[61]
Despite the presence of these immigrants and a foreign pharaoh, Egypt remained home primarily to Egyptians, by far the largest group within the population.[61] In fact, most of the rural and urban native population that lived in towns, villages and hamlets the length of theNile Valley continued their lives little changed during the rule of thePtolemies.[61] Even inAlexandria, the capital of Ptolemaic Egypt and the largest Greek city outside ofGreece, the number of native Egyptians far outnumbered that of Greeks.[62] In numbers and in culture, Egypt remained essentially Egyptian, even as foreign communities were incorporated into the life of the country.[63] Over time, the small numbers of foreigners were integrated into the Egyptian population so that, when finally Rome took control of Egypt in 30 BC, the vast majority of Greeks in Egypt were essentially categorized by the Roman conquerors as Egyptians.[63][64]
TheFaiyum mummy portraits reflect the complex synthesis of the predominant Egyptian culture and religion, with that ofHellenistic art, and were attached to sarcophagi of firmly Egyptian character.[65] The dental morphology of the Roman-period Faiyum mummies was compared with that of earlier Egyptian populations, and was found to be "much more closely akin" to that of ancient Egyptians than to Greeks or other European populations.[66][67]
According to ancient tradition,Christianity was introduced to present dayEgypt bySt. Mark (Also known as St. Markos) inAlexandria, shortly after the ascension ofChrist and during the reign of theRoman emperorClaudius around 42 AD.[68] The legacy that St. Mark left in Egypt was a considerable Christian community in Alexandria. Within half a century of St. Mark's arrival Christianity had spread throughout Egypt. This is clear from a fragment of theGospel of John, written inCoptic and found inUpper Egypt that can be dated to the first half of the 2nd century, and theNew Testament writings found inOxyrhynchus, inMiddle Egypt, which date around 200 AD. In the 2nd century, Christianity began to spread to the rural areas, and scriptures were translated into the Coptic language (then known asEgyptian). By the beginning of the 3rd century AD,Christians constituted the majority of Egypt's population, and theChurch of Alexandria was recognized as one ofChristendom's four apostolic sees, second in honor only to theChurch in Rome.[69][70] The Church of Alexandria is therefore the oldest Christian church inAfrica.
The Copts in Egypt contributed immensely to the Christian tradition. TheCatecheticalSchool of Alexandria was the oldest institution of its kind in the world. Founded around 190 AD by the scholarPantanaeus, the school became an important focus of religious learning, where students were taught by scholars such asAthenagoras,Clement,Didymus, andOrigen (185–251, the father of theology,[71]who was also active in the field of commentary and comparativeBiblical studies). However, the scope of this school was not limited to theological subjects: science, mathematics and humanities were also taught there. The question-and-answer method of commentary began there, and 15 centuries beforeBraille, blind scholars used wood-carving techniques there to read and write.
As major early adopters of Christianity, Copts have the reputation of missionaries spreading the Christian faith as far afield as Switzerland, Abyssinia and India, influencing Mesopotamia, Persia, Rome, and Ireland.[72]
In the fourth and fifth centuries AD, the foundations were laid for the divergence in doctrine between the native Christian Church of the Egyptians, and that of the empire. The official schism occurred at theCouncil of Chalcedon in 451 AD. The council, which condemned, deposed, exiled and replaced the native Egyptian Patriarch of AlexandriaDioscorus I, was rejected by the Egyptian delegation to the council, and by extension by the entirety of the native Egyptian population. As a result of the Council of Chalcedon, theChurch of Alexandria, which had jurisdiction over the entire country of Egypt, as well as all of continent ofAfrica, was divided into a church that accepted the decrees of the council, and one that rejected them. The church that accepted the council, became known as the Chalcedonian church, and survives today as theGreek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria. On the other hand, the church that rejected the council of Chalcedon, to whom the vast majority of the native Copts adhered, became the predecessor of theCoptic Orthodox Church. The latter has been erroneously referred to asMonophysite, although it itself rejects that term and self-proclaims to beMiaphysite. The non-Chalcedonian Miaphysite doctrine became adopted as a badge of nationalism for the native Egyptians.[75]
A distinctive Egyptian character of Egypt's native Copts began to develop after the council of Chalcedon, and reached its zenith in the period after the reign of emperorJustinian I in the sixth century AD.[76] That process became the foundation for the evolution of a distinctive Egyptian character for theCoptic Orthodox Church, with its distancing from the empire's officialChalcedonian Christology and its distinctive Greek character.[76] During that period and until the Arab invasion of Egypt in the seventh century, the Byzantine emperors repeatedly deposed and exiled native Egyptian non-Chalcedonian patriarchs of Alexandria, and imposed pro-Chalcedonian ones, most of whom were non-Egyptian. Over the years, because of what they had construed as persecution of the imperial authorities, the Egyptians hardened their position and rejected all conciliatory efforts that fell short of a full condemnation of the Council of Chalcedon.[77] This position coincided with the rise in the public visibility of theCoptic language in several areas of the Egyptians' daily life.
In 641 AD, Egypt was conquered by Arab Muslim forces following the defeat of the Byzantine army. According to historian Roger S. Bagnall, the Copts who had developed a distinct Egyptian and non-Chalcedonian identity were subjected to a new system of governance that prioritized fiscal exploitation and systematic resource extraction, particularly through taxation.[78]
Alfred J. Butler records that parts of Alexandria were damaged during the Arab entry into the city, including the destruction of some of its walls and the burning of several churches.[79]
During the early years of the Rashidun Caliphate, Egypt's population particularly the native Copts was subjected to the imposition of new forms of taxation, forced labor requisitions for state infrastructure, and the appropriation of agricultural and technical resources. The fertile Nile Valley and the country's skilled labor force, particularly in shipbuilding and irrigation, were of strategic importance to the new administration.[78]
By the early eighth century, Coptic Christians were increasingly compelled to participate in state-sponsored labor. According to Alfred J. Butler, entire Egyptian villages were required to supply annual quotas of workers for construction projects including palaces and mosques in Fustat, Damascus, and Jerusalem. Additionally, they were conscripted into naval expeditions considered especially harsh, as those sent rarely returned to their villages due to the dangerous conditions.[80]
Roger S. Bagnall emphasizes that fiscal exploitation and labor requisition were central elements of the early Islamic administrative system in Egypt. These policies imposed disproportionate burdens on rural communities, particularly the Copts, who bore the brunt of extractive practices aimed at funding the caliphate's military and infrastructural expansion.[78]
In addition to labor, native Christians were subject to thejizya a special tax levied exclusively on non-Muslims under Islamic law. Aziz Suryal Atiya notes that during the Umayyad period, this tax was extended even to monks, in violation of earlier pledges of exemption, and was often enforced with harsh penalties.[81]
Faced with the cumulative pressures of taxation, legal inequality, and the threat of forced conscription or persecution, many Copts gradually converted to Islam. These converts were classified asMawali (non-Arab Muslims) who, while integrated into the Muslim community, initially occupied a lower social and legal status than Arab Muslims.[82]
The burden of taxation left many Copts in rural areas unable to meet their obligations.[83] Oppressive taxation resulted in local resistance and many revolts by the Copts against the Arab occupiers, the most famous of which were theBashmurian revolts between 720 A.D. and 832 A.D.[84][85] Another reaction to the heavy taxation was for poor Christian Copts to either borrow money from richer members of their communities, or to altogether flee their lands and escape to other parts of Egypt.[86]
Coptic converts toIslam may have been motivated by the prospect of financial relief, as they would no longer be subject to the Jizya tax, which was levied only on non-Muslims according toIslamic Sharia law.[101] TheHistory of the Patriarchs of Alexandria recounts the history of fiscal oppression imposed by thecaliphate against Copts as driving conversions from Christianity to Islam.[101] Early converts had to attach themselves to Arab Muslim patrons asMawali. While they had to adopt Arabic as their main language, they remained fluent in Coptic, thus creating a growing bilingual group among Egyptian Muslims.[102] Nevertheless, Egypt remained a majority Christian country well into theMiddle Ages. Many cities inUpper Egypt had no Muslim communities at all during that time.[103]
General Yaqub is considered to be the founder of the first project for Egypt's independence in modern times from theOttoman Empire.[106][107][108] He argued for the country's independence from anEgyptian nationalist point of view, highlighting the past glory of Egypt, lamenting its current state unworthy of a people who built a great civilization, and stressing the debt that humanity owes to Egypt's ancient culture.[107]
During the Ottoman period, Copts were classified alongside other Oriental Orthodox (namely theSyriac Orthodox) andChurch of the East peoples under theArmenian millet.[109] Under Muslim rule, Christians paid special taxes, had lower access to political power, and were exempt from military service.
The position of the Copts improved dramatically under the rule ofMuhammad Ali in the early 19th century. He abolished the jizya (a tax on non-Muslims) and allowed Copts to enroll in the army.Pope Cyril IV, who reigned from 1854–1861, reformed the church and encouraged broader Coptic participation in Egyptian affairs. KhediveIsma'il Pasha, in power 1863–1879, further promoted the Copts. He appointed them judges to Egyptian courts and awarded them political rights and representation in government. They flourished in business affairs.[50]
The flag of Egyptian nationalist revolutionaries during the1919 Revolution. It displays both the crescent representing Muslim Egyptians and the cross representing Christian Egyptians
Egypt's struggle for independence from both theOttoman Empire and theUnited Kingdom was marked by secularEgyptian nationalism. Copts were in the forefront of that struggle for Egypt's independence. When the Egyptian nationalist leaderSaad Zaghlul met the Arab delegates atVersailles in 1919, he insisted that their struggles for statehood were not connected, stressing that the problem of Egypt was an Egyptian problem and not an Arab one.[110]
When Zaghlul wasexiled by the British toMalta in 1919, a number of prominent Christian Coptic figures who joined him in resisting the British occupation of Egypt were also exiled with him, includingWissa Wassef andGeorge Khayat, both key members of the Egyptian nationalist movement. When Zaghlul returned from his first exile, he was joined by the CoptsWissa Wassef,Sinout Hanna,Wassef Ghali,Morcos Hanna andMakram Ebeid in forming a strong opposition against British colonialism in Egypt.[111] Later in 1921, when Zaghlul was exiled to theSeychelles, the prominent CoptMakram Ebeid was exiled with him.[111]
The exiles were part of the larger Egyptian nationalist response to British colonial rule and represented a unified effort across religious lines in Egypt. They galvanized widespread protests in Egypt that culminated in the famous1919 revolution, which further emphasized the shared desire for independence among Egyptians of all faiths. This unity became a hallmark of the early 20th-century Egyptian nationalism. In his memoirs,
Fakhri 'Abd al-Nur, one of the most recognized Coptic figures of the 1919 Revolution, recalls the positive impact of the statement made by Saad Zaghlul at the onset of the revolution, declaring "equal responsibilities and equal rights" of Egyptian Copts and Muslims.[112] In fact, the preacher of the 1919 Revolution was a Coptic priest,Father Morcos Sergius, who had been previously exiled by the British in 1915.[113]
In April 1922, the British ordered the execution of seven Egyptian nationalists, four of whom were Copts: Wissa Wassef, Wassef Ghali, George Khayat, and Morcos Hanna.[111] As a result of their struggle, Egypt gained its independence from both Great Britain and the Ottoman Empire on 28 February 1922. This struggle of Copts against the British and the Ottomans within the framework of Egyptian nationalism highlighted the Copts' (as well as the Egyptian Muslims') self-identification as Egyptians first and foremost with little attention to religious affiliations.
PresidentNasser welcomes a delegation of Coptic bishops (1965)
Two significant cultural achievements for Copts in the twentieth century include the founding of theCoptic Museum in 1910 and the Higher Institute of Coptic Studies in 1954. Some prominent Coptic thinkers from this period areSalama Moussa,Louis Awad and Secretary General of the Wafd PartyMakram Ebeid.
In 1952,Gamal Abdel Nasser led some army officers in a coup d'état againstKing Farouk, which overthrew the Kingdom of Egypt and established a republic.Nasser's mainstream policy waspan-Arab nationalism and socialism. The Copts were severely affected by Nasser's nationalization policies.[114] In addition, Nasser's pan-Arab policies undermined the Copts' strong attachment to and sense of identity about their Egyptian pre-Arab, and non-Arab identity.[114]
The Coptic populationin Egypt is difficult to estimate because researchers are forbidden by Egyptian authorities to ask a survey participant's religion.[115] A lack of definite, reliable demographic data renders all estimates uncertain.[3][116] As of 2019, Copts were generally understood to make up approximately 10 percent of Egypt's population,[116] with an estimated population of 9.5 million (figure cited in theWall Street Journal, 2017)[1] or 10 million (figure cited in theAssociated Press, 2019).[2] Smaller or larger figures have also been cited, in the range of "somewhere between 6% and 18% of the population,"[3] with the Egyptian government estimating lower numbers and the Coptic Orthodox Church estimating higher numbers.[116] In 2023,Pope Tawadros II of Alexandria stated that the number of Copts in Egypt is estimated at approximately 15 million out of a total population of 105 million, or approximately 14% of the population in Egypt.[38][33] He also said there were another 2 million Copts living in approximately 100 different countries in thediaspora.[38][33] He explained that this data was obtained from records of child baptisms, marriages, and deaths.
Despite challenges, Copts are well integrated in the Egyptian society. The highest concentrations of Copts are inUpper Egypt, especially aroundAsyut,Minya andQena.[117]
There are approximately 1-2 million Copts living outside of Egypt, and are known as theCoptic diaspora.[38][33] They live mainly in theUnited States(500,000),[8] Sudan (400,000-500,000),[9] Australia (75,000),[10] Libya (60,000),[11] Canada (50,000),[12] France (45,000),[13] Italy (30,000),[14] the United Kingdom (25,000–30,000),[15] the United Arab Emirates (10,000)[16] and the Netherlands (10,000).[17]
Holy Virgin Mary Coptic Orthodox Cathedral inKhartoum
Sudan has a native Coptic minority, although many Copts in Sudan are descended from more recent Egyptian immigrants.[9] Copts in Sudan live mostly in northern cities close to the border with Egypt.[9] Many Sudanese Copts have advanced educations.[9] They have occasionally faced forcedconversion to Islam, resulting in their emigration and decrease in number.[9]
Modern immigration of Copts to Sudan peaked in the early 19th century, and they generally received a tolerant welcome there. However, this was interrupted by a decade of persecution underMahdist rule at the end of the 19th century.[9] As a result of this persecution, many were forced to relinquish their faith, adoptIslam, and intermarry with the native Sudanese population. TheAnglo-Egyptian invasion in 1898 allowed Copts greater religious and economic freedom. However, the return ofIslamism in the mid-1960s and subsequent demands by radicals for anIslamic constitution prompted Copts to join in public opposition to religious rule.[9]
Introduction of IslamicSharia law in 1983 began a new phase of oppressive treatment of Copts, among other non-Muslims.[9] Coptic leaders supported a secular candidate in the 1986 elections. However, when theNational Islamic Front overthrew the elected government with the help of the military, discrimination against Copts returned in earnest. Hundreds of Copts were dismissed from the civil service and judiciary.[9] In 1991, many Copts in Sudan fled the country after the execution by the government of a Coptic pilot for illegal possession of foreign currency and refusing to convert toIslam.[118] Restrictions on the Copts' rights to Sudanese nationality followed, and it became difficult for them to obtain Sudanese nationality by birth or by naturalization, resulting in problems when attempting to travel abroad. The confiscation of Christian schools and the imposition of an Arab-Islamic emphasis in language and history teaching were accompanied by harassment of Christian children and the introduction ofhijab dress laws. In contrast with the extensive media broadcasting of the MuslimFriday prayers, the radio ceased coverage of the Christian Sunday service.
A 2018 report by theMinority Rights Group said Sudanese Copts had previously estimated their numbers at 400,000 to 500,000,[121] about 1% of the Sudanese population,[9] but that emigration and conversion (including forced conversion) to Islam had decreased their number.[122]
TheCoptic population in Libya is uncertain. A 2013 estimate by theU.S. Department of State placed the entire population of non-Muslim Libyans at 180,000 (roughly 3% of the country's population). However, the Coptic Orthodox Church in Libya estimated that its membership alone was 300,000, including those who do not regularly attend church services.[123] In 2011, there were three Coptic churches in the country. From 2011 to 2015, during theLibyan civil war, at least 200,000 Christiansfled Libya. during that time, Islamist militants such as theAnsar al-Sharia,Nusra Front, andIslamic State violently persecuted Copts.[123]
As of 2018, theCoptic American population was estimated to be more than 500,000, with more than 250 Coptic churches in the United States at the time.[8] In the early 2010s, the Canadian Coptic Association estimates that the population ofCanadian Copts was 35,000.[126] By 2017, there were an estimated 50,000 Canadian Copts, with more than 80% living inOntario,[12] mainly in theGreater Toronto Area.[126]
TheCoptic Australians population has been estimated at 30,000 (ABC News, 2017)[127] to 100,000 (SBS, 2018).[128] The first Coptic Orthodox priest in Australia arrived in 1969. TheCoptic Orthodox Church in Australia is organized into two dioceses, the first based inMelbourne (diocese organized in 1999) and the second inSydney (diocese organized in 2002).[129] There is a single Coptic Catholic church in Australia, consecrated in 2019.[130]
As of 2017,Germany was home to between 6,000 and 10,000 Copts.[135] In the 2020s, the Coptic Orthodox population ofAustria was estimated to be 10,000, although the 2001 Austrian census (the country's last to record religious affiliation) tallied just 1,633 Coptic Orthodox.[136]
InSwitzerland, the first Copts arrived in the 1960s, mostly students and those fleeing Egypt after the1952 revolution. The first Coptic church in Switzerland opened in 2004, when there were approximately 1,000 Copts in the country.[137]
Copts in Egypt are generally characterized by relatively high levels of educational attainment, income, and representation in professional and white-collar occupations, though their participation in security-related institutions remains limited.[56] Most socioeconomic and health indicators among Copts in Egypt are broadly comparable to those of Egyptian Muslims.[138] Historical data also suggest that Egyptian Christians have been overrepresented in the country's middle and upper-middle classes.[139] As of 2016, 36% of Egyptian Christians had completed university education in institutions ofhigher education; among the highest rates in the Middle East and North Africa.[140]
Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, Copts held significant roles in Egypt's financial and administrative sectors. They were widely employed as accountants in government offices, and by the 1960s reportedly owned 51% of the country's banking institutions.[141][142] In the mid-20th century, Christians were estimated to represent 45% of Egypt's medical doctors and 60% of its pharmacists.[143]
Several Coptic families have attained significant economic influence, particularly in the private sector. TheSawiris family, through itsOrascom conglomerate, became one of Egypt's most prominent business dynasties in the early 2000s, with interests spanning telecommunications, construction, tourism, and technology.[144][145][146] In 2008, Forbes estimated their combined wealth at $36 billion.[147][148][149][150]
Some scholars attribute the high educational and economic profile of the Coptic community to a historical emphasis within the Coptic community on literacy and the development of human capital.[141]
Coptic and Arabic inscriptions in an Old Cairo church
TheCoptic language is the most recent stage of theEgyptian language. Coptic should more correctly be used to refer to thescript rather than the language itself. Even though this script was introduced as far back as the 1st century BC, it has been applied to the writing of the Egyptian language from the 1st century AD to the present day.[151]
Coptic continued to flourish as a literary language in Egypt until the 13th century.[51] It was supplanted byEgyptian Arabic inLower Egypt andSa'idi Arabic inUpper Egypt toward the 16th century but remained part of the education of well-bred Copts until the middle of the 17th century, and was still taught regularly in Coptic schools.[51][152] In the early 19th century,Coptic was instrumental inChampollion's success in deciphering theEgyptian hieroglyphs.
Today Coptic is extinct but it is still theliturgical language of the native Egyptian Churches (theCoptic Orthodox Church and theCoptic Catholic Church). It is taught worldwide in many prestigious institutions, but its teaching within Egypt remains limited.
Leaf from a Coptic manuscript, 6th-14th century, Metropolitan museum of art, NYC
TheCoptic calendar, also called the Alexandrian calendar, is used by theCoptic Orthodox Church and also byEthiopia as its official calendar (with different names). Thiscalendar is based on the ancientEgyptian calendar. To avoid the calendar creep of the latter, a reform of the ancient Egyptian calendar was introduced at the time ofPtolemy III (Decree of Canopus, in 238 BC), which consisted of the intercalation of a sixthepagomenal day every fourth year. However, this reform was opposed by the Egyptian priests, and the idea was not adopted until 25 BC, when theRoman EmperorAugustus formally reformed the calendar ofEgypt, keeping it forever synchronized with the newly introducedJulian calendar. To distinguish it from the Ancient Egyptian calendar, which remained in use by some astronomers until medieval times, this reformed calendar is known as the Coptic calendar. Its years and months coincide with those of theEthiopian calendar but have different numbers and names.[153]
Coptic Orthodox Cross with traditional Coptic script reading: 'Jesus Christ, the Son of God'
The Coptic year is the extension of the ancient Egyptian civil year, retaining its subdivision into the three seasons, four months each. The three seasons are commemorated by special prayers in the Coptic liturgy. This calendar is still in use all over Egypt by farmers to keep track of the various agricultural seasons. The Coptic calendar has 13 months, 12 of 30 days each and an intercalary month at the end of the year of 5 or 6 days, depending whether the year is a leap year or not. The year starts on 29 August in theJulian Calendar or on the 30th in the year before (Julian) Leap Years. The Coptic Leap Year follows the same rules as the Julian Calendar so that the extra month always has six days in the year before a Julian Leap Year.[154]
The Feast ofNeyrouz marks the first day of the Coptic year. Its celebration falls on the first day of the month ofThout, the first month of the Egyptian year, which for AD 1901 to 2098 usually coincides with 11 September of theGregorian calendar, except before a Gregorian leap year when it's 12 September. Coptic years are counted from 284 AD, the yearDiocletian became Roman Emperor, whose reign was marked by tortures and mass executions of Christians, especially in Egypt. Hence, the Coptic year is identified by the abbreviation A.M. (forAnno Martyrum or "Year of the Martyrs").[155][156] The A.M. abbreviation is also used for the unrelated Jewish year (Anno Mundi).
Every fourth Coptic year is a leap yearwithout exception, as in the Julian calendar, so the above-mentioned new year dates apply only between AD 1900 and 2099 inclusive in the Gregorian Calendar. In the Julian Calendar, the new year isalways 29 August, except before a Julian leap year when it's August 30.Easter is reckoned by the Julian Calendar in the Old Calendarist way.
To obtain the Coptic year number, subtract from the Julian year number either 283 (before the Julian new year) or 284 (after it).[157]
Coptic music is themusic sung and played in theCoptic Orthodox Church and theCoptic Catholic Church. It has some roots inancient Egyptian music and many elements of ancient Egyptian music continue to survive in Coptic liturgical music, with additionalByzantine andHebrew influences.[158][159] It consists mainly of chantedhymns in rhythm with instruments such ascymbals (hand and large size) and thetriangle. The percussion instruments used in the Coptic Church are unusual among Christian liturgies. Since similar instruments appear in ancient Egyptian frescoes and reliefs, some believe that they may represent a survival from a very old tradition. Coptic music is purely religious.
Coptic chant is an ancient tradition that has been linked to the musical practices of ancient Egypt.[160][161] One example is a hymn sung on Good Friday, which may be derived from melodies used by ancient Egyptian priests during royal funerary rites.[161]
Coptic music has been transmitted orally over thousands of years, and only recently have manuscripts, musical notes and books been used to record the Coptic music.[158][159]
Religious freedom in Egypt is constitutionally guaranteed but restricted in practice, particularly for the Coptic Christian minority. Discriminatory policies and bureaucratic hurdles have historically hampered the construction and repair of churches. Until 2005, presidential approval was required for even minor repairs. Although this requirement was devolved to governors and further eased by the 2016 Church Construction Law.[162][163]
Copts have been the target of sectarian violence. Notable incidents include the1999–2000 El-Kosheh clashes that left 21 dead,[164][165] attacks on Alexandria churches in 2006,[166][167] and mob violence inMarsa Matrouh in 2010.[168] Reports from the same period indicate that police frequently arrived too late to prevent violence, pressured Copts into "reconciliation" sessions, and rarely prosecuted attackers.[169]
Following the 2013 ousting of PresidentMohamed Morsi, churches and Christian properties were targeted in retaliatory attacks. At least 45 churches were attacked, with accusations thatMuslim Brotherhood rhetoric incited the violence.[170][171][172]
Human trafficking and forced conversions have also been reported. Coptic women and girls have been subject to abduction, coercion, and forced marriage, with congressional and NGO concern raised about state inaction and complicity.[173][174][175]
Copts are underrepresented in public office, security services, and judiciary positions. During PresidentMubarak's tenure, only a few Copts held cabinet or gubernatorial positions.[176][177]
Religious conversion laws in Egypt remain asymmetrical. While conversion to Islam is easily recognized, Christians converting from Islam face legal and bureaucratic obstacles. Some converts have been arrested or denied identity documents.[178][179] Though a 2008 court ruling allowed 12 citizens to re-register as Christians after converting to Islam, it required them to list their period as Muslims on official documents.[180]
Recent years have seen incremental improvements. Church construction has become easier, with thousands of churches legalized under the 2016 law and fewer reports of obstruction.[181] In Open Doors' World Watch List, Egypt dropped from 25th place out of 50 in 2013 to 40th in 2025, indicating a decline in reported persecution, though social and legal challenges remain.[182]
Today, members of thenon-Chalcedonian Coptic Orthodox Church constitute the majority of the Egyptian Christian population. Diaspora communities of other Christians, especially ones from across the Middle East, have added to the diversity of churches in Egypt (such communities are not Egyptians themselves); this includes sisterOriental Orthodox Churches (Syriac Orthodox Church,Armenian Apostolic Church, andEthiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church),Roman Catholic Churches,Eastern Catholic Churches, andProtestant churches. Western missionary efforts have also led to the conversion of local Copts to various Protestant churches. The termCoptic remains exclusive, however, to the Egyptian natives, as opposed to the Christians of non-Egyptian origins. Some Protestant churches for instance are called "Coptic Evangelical Church", thus helping differentiate their native Egyptian congregations from churches attended by non-Egyptian immigrant communities such as Europeans or Americans..[183]
The previous head of the Coptic Orthodox Church,Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria, died on 17 March 2012. On 4 November 2012,Bishop Tawadros was chosen as the new pope of Egypt's Coptic Christians. His name was selected from a glass bowl containing the three shortlisted candidates by a blindfolded boy at a ceremony inCairo'sSt Mark's Cathedral.[184]
Copts have historically maintained a strong sense of Egyptian identity, which has played a role in their cultural and religious expression.[185][186][187][188][75] Throughout history, Copts have expressed resistance to broader regional identities such as pan-Arabism and Islamism, while emphasizing their connection to Egypt.[189]
The formulation of Coptic identity in the ethnic sense began inGreco-Roman Egypt against the backdrop of foreign rulers, first thePtolemies and subsequently theRoman emperors. InGreco-Roman Egypt, the term Copt designated the local population ofEgypt, as opposed to theelite group of foreign rulers and settlers (Greeks, Romans, etc.) who came to Egypt from other regions and established prominentempires. During that period, foreign rulers respected the Egyptians and their localreligion, and erected many temples forEgyptian gods, such as theTemple of Horus in Edfu and theTemple of Hathor at Dendra.[190] Despite the presence of these immigrants and a foreign pharaoh, Egypt remained home primarily to Egyptians, by far the largest group within the population.[61] In fact, most of the rural and urban native population that lived in towns, villages and hamlets the length of theNile Valley continued their lives little changed during the rule of thePtolemies.[61] Even inAlexandria, the capital of Ptolemaic Egypt and the largest Greek city outside ofGreece, the number of native Egyptians far outnumbered that of Greeks.[62] In numbers and in culture, Egypt remained essentially Egyptian.[63]
The foundation for defining the Copts as an ethno-religious group rather than just an ethnic group began in the fourth and fifth centuries AD, as divergence in doctrine between the native Christian Church of the Egyptians and that of the empire began. The persecution and exile in the fourth century by emperorConstantine the Great ofAthanasius, the native Egyptian patriarch of theChurch of Alexandria, became the embodiment of the Egyptian character of the Church in Egypt.[191] The persecution of Athanasius helped to create a type for the laterpatriarchs of Alexandria, who were repeatedly portrayed as defenders of the truth against outsiders and non-Egyptians.[191] The official schism occurred at theCouncil of Chalcedon in 451 AD. The council, which condemned, deposed, exiled and replaced the native Egyptian Patriarch of AlexandriaDioscorus I, was rejected by the Egyptian delegation to the council, and by extension by the entirety of the native Egyptian population. As a result of the Council of Chalcedon, theChurch of Alexandria, which had jurisdiction over the entire country of Egypt, as well as all of continent ofAfrica, was divided into a church that accepted the decrees of the council, and one that rejected them. The church that accepted the council, became known as the Chalcedonian church, and survives today as theGreek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria. On the other hand, the church that rejected the council of Chalcedon, to whom the vast majority of the native Egyptians adhered, became the predecessor of theCoptic Orthodox Church.
The process of identity-building for the native Egyptians emerged into view most clearly in the period after the reign of emperorJustinian I in the sixth century AD.[76] That process became the foundation for the evolution of a distinctive Egyptian character for theCoptic Orthodox Church, with its distancing from the empire's officialChalcedonian Orthodoxy and its distinctive Greek character.[76] Copts viewed their Church as one with direct doctrinal continuity with such Egyptian patristic giants asAthanasius of Alexandria andCyril of Alexandria, both of whom were Popes of the Church of Alexandria, and whose theology was the foundation of worldwide orthodox Christian belief.[192] Another important aspect of the Coptic community's self-perception was its ethnic and religious continuity with the community that produced the many local Egyptianmartyrs.[193]
By the time of theArab conquest of Egypt in 641 AD, the Copts had formed a distinct ethno-religious identity that was Egyptian and non-Chalcedonian, as opposed to the mainly Greek Byzantine Chalcedonian identity of the rulingempire. Under Arab Muslim rule, according to Bagnall and other historians, a combination of factors including heavy taxation, such as thejizya (a tax levied exclusively on non-Muslims underIslamic Sharia law), avoidance of forced labor or conscription, fear of persecution, and the prospect of greater social and legal mobility led many Egyptians to gradually convert to Islam over the following centuries.[78] Those Copts who converted to Islam were known asMawali (non-Arab Muslims), and they held a lower social and legal status than Arab Muslims during the early Islamic period. In early Islamic Egypt, "Arab" referred mainly to the ruling elite of Arab descent. Within the social hierarchy of the time, Coptic Christians classified asdhimmis occupied a lower legal and social status than both Arab Muslims and Mawali (non-Arab converts to Islam).[194][195] Over time, the term "Copt" came to exclusively identify Egyptians who maintained their Christian faith.[78]
Under Islamic rule, Coptic identity continued to be defined against the backdrop of sound theology and Christology, in contrast to those of the Chalcedonians. However, with the presence of non-natives in the country, Coptic identity also began to stress the native Egyptian character of the Copts.[196] As Muslims, mainly Egyptian converts and less commonly Arabs, slowly started settling in the countryside, they provided another against whom this identity became better defined.[193]Coptic monasticism played a crucial role in the preservation of Coptic identity in Egypt. The Copts' Egyptian Christian identity was thus formulated. It was then with the spread ofArabic beyond the big cities that the Egyptian Church became known as "Coptic" and that native Egyptian Christians became known as "Copts", a semantic shift that occurred in the eighth and ninth centuries.[197] Nonetheless, in their own nativeCoptic language, Copts continue to refer to themselves today asⲛⲓⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ (the Egyptians), and to their Church asϮⲉⲕ̀ⲕⲗⲏⲥⲓⲁ ⲛ̀ⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ ⲛ̀ⲟⲣⲑⲟⲇⲟⲝⲟⲥ (the Egyptian Orthodox Church).
In modern times, the question of Coptic identity was never raised before the rise of pan-Arabism underNasser in the early 1950s. Up to that point, both Egyptian Muslims and Egyptian Christians viewed themselves as only Egyptians without any Arab sentiment.[46] The struggle to maintain this Egyptian identity began as Nasser and his regime tried to impose an Arab identity on the country, and attempted to erase all references to Egypt as a separate and unique entity.[198] Today, Copts and many Egyptian Muslims reject Arab nationalism, emphasizing indigenous Egyptian heritage and culture as well as their own unique ethnicity and genetic makeup, which are completely different from those of the Arabs.[198]Persecution has become pivotal to the Copts' sense of identity.[199]
Following the Arab conquest of Egypt in the 7th century, the term "Copt" became associated with Egypt's native population, who were majority Christian at the time. Over time, the term "Copt" came to represent Egyptian Christians as distinct from Egyptians who had embraced Islam. While cultural and historical connections toancient Egypt constitute a significant part of Coptic identity, modern Copts are part of the broader Egyptian population, shaped by various cultural influences and their Christian faith. Genetics have shown that both Egypt's Muslim and Christian populations are largely descended from the pre-Islamic Egyptian population.[200][201][202][203][186][204]
According to Y-DNA analysis onCopts in Sudan, around 45% of Sudanese Copts carry theHaplogroup J. The remainder mainly belong to theE1b1b clade (21%). Both paternal lineages are common among other localAfroasiatic-speaking populations (Beja, Ethiopians, Sudanese Arabs), as well as the Nubians.[205]
E1b1b/E3b reaches its highest frequencies among North Africans, Levantine Middle Easterners, and Ethiopid East Africans.[206] The next most common haplogroups borne by Copts in Sudan are the European-linkedR1b clade (15%), as well as the archaic AfricanB lineage (15%).[205] Maternally, Copts in Sudan exclusively carry various descendants of themacrohaplogroup N. This mtDNA clade is likewise closely associated with local Afroasiatic-speaking populations, including Berbers and Ethiopid peoples. Of the N derivatives borne by Copts,U6 is most frequent (28%), followed by thehaplogroup T (17%).[207]
Genetic studies have shown the ancient Egyptians to be genetically intermediary between the populations ofSouthern Europe andNubia (two frequently-used reference points).[208]
A 2015 study by Dobon et al. identified an ancestral autosomal component of Western Eurasian origin that is common to many modern Afroasiatic-speaking populations inNortheast Africa. Known as theCoptic component, it peaks among Egyptian Copts who settled in Sudan over the past two centuries. In their analysis, Sudan's Copts formed a separated group in thePCA, a close outlier to other Egyptians, Afro-Asiatic-speaking Northeast Africans and Middle East populations. The scientists suggest that this points to a common origin for the general population of Egypt, or Middle Eastern and North African populations. Copts in general shared the same main ancestral component with North African/Middle Eastern populations. The study affirms that Copts are recognized as the most ancient population of Egypt, as the Sudanese Copts did not display the later Arabian influence that is present among the modern Egyptian population.[209]
A 2017 genome-wide study by Hollfelder et al. analyzed approximately 3.9 million SNPs from 18 different populations in Sudan and South Sudan, including members of the Coptic community. The Copts, identified as an ethnic group that migrated from Egypt to Sudan around 200 years ago were compared to Egyptians from Egypt using ADMIXTURE and principal component analyses. The Copts displayed a genetic profile closely resembling that of Egyptians. At lower numbers of clusters, both groups appeared admixed between Near Eastern/European and northeastern Sudanese populations. At higher resolution (K≥18), the Copts formed a distinct ancestry component also present in Egyptians.[210]
The study found low genetic differentiation between the two groups (FST = 0.00236) as well as nearly identical levels of estimated European ancestry, 69.54% ± 2.57 in the Copts and 70.65% ± 2.47 in Egyptians. Formal D-statistics revealed no significant evidence of differential admixture from other groups into either population. Both also exhibited low genetic diversity and extended runs of homozygosity compared to other northeast African and Middle Eastern groups. The authors concluded that the Copts and Egyptians share a common population history, with the Copts remaining relatively isolated since their migration to Sudan.[210]
A 2020 study investigating genetic correlations between Egyptian Muslims and Egyptian Christians analyzed allele frequencies across nine autosomal STR loci (D3S1358, VWA, FGA, THO1, TPOX, CSF1PO, D5S818, D13S317, and D7S820) using DNA samples from 200 unrelated individuals, equally divided between the two groups. The samples were drawn from various locations across Egypt.[211] Using allele frequency statistics, forensic efficiency parameters, population homogeneity charts, and graphical analyses, the study evaluated the degree of genetic similarity between the two groups. The findings revealed strong genetic correlation and no significant differentiation, leading the authors to conclude that Egyptian Muslims and Christians genetically originate from the same ancestral population.[211]
^In 2017, theWall Street Journal reported that "the vast majority of Egypt's estimated 9.5 million Christians, approximately 10% of the country's population, are Orthodox Copts."[1] In 2019, the Associated Press cited an estimate of 10 million Copts in Egypt.[2] In 2015, theWall Street Journal reported: "The Egyptian government estimates about 5 million Copts, but the Coptic Orthodox Church says 15-18 million. Reliable numbers are hard to find but estimates suggest they make up somewhere between 6% and 18% of the population."[3] In 2004, BBC News reported that Copts were 5–10% of the Egyptian population.[4] TheCIA World Factbook reported a 2015 estimate that 10% of the Egyptian population is Christian (including both Copts and non-Copts).[5] In 2017, theMinority Rights Group reported that figures for the population of Egyptian Copts "range between 4.7 and 7.1 million, comprising between six and nine per cent of the population, though some estimates put the proportion at as much as 15 to 10 per cent."[6]
^abTeller, Matthew (12 July 2015)."Free to pray – but don't try to convert anyone".BBC. Retrieved12 July 2015.Ten-thousand or more live in the UAE, and young, bearded priest Father Markos, 12 years in Dubai, told me his flock are "more than happy – they enjoy their life, they are free."
^Setiyono, Mozes Adiguna (2023). "From Pan-Arabism to Pharaonism: Egypt's Gradual Change of National Identity during the Sisi Era".Global Strategis.17 (2): 312.
^Erman, Adolf (1971).Life in Ancient Egypt. Egypt Series. Courier Corporation. p. 29.ISBN978-0-486-22632-3.
^Cannuyer, Christin (2001).Coptic Egypt: The Christians of the Nile. Thames & Hudson.ISBN978-0-500-30104-3.
^Minahan, James B. (2016).Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Ethnic and National Groups Around the World (2nd ed.). Greenwood. p. 108.ISBN978-1-61069-953-2.
^Elmasry, Iris Habib (1978).The Story of the Copts. St. Anthony Coptic Orthodox Monastery Publications. p. 247.ASINB00NHR2KJW.
^Tadros, Mariz (2013).Copts at the Crossroads: The Challenges of Building Inclusive Democracy in Contemporary Egypt. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-977-416-591-7.
^"Who are Egypt's Coptic Christians?". CNN. 10 April 2017.The largest Christian community in the Middle East, Coptic Christians make up the majority of Egypt's roughly 15 million Christians.
^About 1-2 million more Coptic Christians are spread across Africa, Europe, Australia, Canada and the United States, according to the World Council of Churches.
^abEtheredge, Laura S. (2011).Middle East, Region in Transition: Egypt. Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 161.ISBN978-977-416-093-6.
^abLyster, William (2013).The Cave Church of Paul the Hermit at the Monastery of St. Pau. Yale University Press.ISBN978-977-416-093-6.Al Hakim Bi-Amr Allah (r. 996–1021), however, who became the greatest persecutor of Copts.... within the church that also appears to coincide with a period of forced rapid conversion to Islam
^N. Swanson, Mark (2010).The Coptic Papacy in Islamic Egypt (641-1517). American Univ in Cairo Press. p. 54.ISBN978-977-416-093-6.
^abDeighton, H. S. (1 October 1946). "The Arab Middle East and the Modern World".International Affairs.22 (4): 519.doi:10.2307/3018194.JSTOR3018194.
^abcMohamoud YA, Cuadros DF, Abu-Raddad LJ. Characterizing the Copts in Egypt: Demographic, socioeconomic and health indicators, QScience Connect 2013:22doi:10.5339/connect.2013.22
^"The people of Egypt before the Arab conquest in the 7th century identified themselves and their language in Greek as Aigyptios (Arabic qibt, Westernized as Copt); when Egyptian Muslims later ceased to call themselves Aigyptioi, the term became the distinctive name of the Christian minority."Coptic Orthodox Church.Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007
^Dentition helps archaeologists to assess biological and ethnic population traits and relationships
^Irish JD (2006). "Who were the ancient Egyptians? Dental affinities among Neolithic through postdynastic peoples.".Am J Phys Anthropol 129 (4): 529-43
^Eusebius of Caesarea, the author of Ecclesiastical History in the fourth century, states that St. Mark came to Egypt in the first or third year of the reign of Emperor Claudius, i.e., 41 or 43 AD. "Two Thousand years of Coptic Christianity" Otto F.A. Meinardus p. 28.
^Issa, Islam (2 January 2024).Alexandria: The City that Changed the World (reprint ed.). Simon and Schuster.ISBN978-1-63936-546-3. Retrieved22 May 2025.Origen's detailed and comparative commentaries on the Bible essentially made him the founder of biblical studies. They led to his title, the father of theology, and cemented his reputation as the most influential Christian theologian until St Augustine over a century later.
^Naiem, Girgis (12 February 2018). "The Copts and their Influence on Christian Civilization".Egypt's Identities in Conflict: The Political and Religious Landscape of Copts and Muslims. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland. pp. 27–29.ISBN978-1-4766-7120-8. Retrieved22 May 2025.Copts themselves spread Christianity and their impact exceeded the borders of Egypt. [...] Cyrenaica is part of the title of the Coptic pope as an area of his jurisdiction. [...] The impact of the Coptic Christian missions was much more influential in the upper side of the Nile Valley in Nubia. [...] Coptic influence [...] reached farther south to Abyssinia, present day Ethiopia. [...] Copts also spread Christianity into the East [...]. The Egyptians went to Palestine, Syria, Cappadocia, Caesarea and some parts of Arabia. [...] Mar Augin of Clysma, Suez, founded monasticism in Mesopotamia and Persia and had a great impact on the Syrian and Assyrian Christians. In the second century,Pantaenus, the dean of the School of Alexandria, introduced the Gospel into India and Arabia Felix, or Yemen. [...] Athanasius the Apostle [died 373] [...] introduced Coptic religious life and monasticism to the Romans. [...] The influence of the Copts also reached Switzerland [...]. [...] Coptic influence also reached the British Isles far before St. Augustine of Canterbury did, in AD 597. Irish Christianity, the influential civilizing agent between northern nations in the Middle Ages, was the child of the Coptic church.
^Stewart, Columba (2000). "Desert Fathers". InJohnston, William M (ed.).Encyclopedia of Monasticism. Vol. 1: A-L. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. p. 373.ISBN978-1-57958-090-2. Retrieved31 May 2025.Through its own literature, the accounts of outsiders who visited, and the monastic forms that it inspired, the life of the Desert Fathers provided the grounding for all later Christian monasticism.
^Brakke, David (2020). "Holy Men and Women of the Desert". In Kaczynski, Bernice M.; Sullivan, Thomas (eds.).The Oxford Handbook of Christian Monasticism. Oxford handbooks. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 36.ISBN978-0-19-968973-6. Retrieved31 May 2025.The traditional narrative placed the origins of desert monasticism precisely in Egypt [...]. This story, however, is far too clear and orderly. We no longer trace all of Christian monasticism to Egypt; rather, recent work explores how forms of monasticism arose independently in particular geographic regions with their distinctive religious cultures.
^Matson, G. Olaf (1925).The American Colony Guide-book to Jerusalem and Environs. Vester. p. 20. Retrieved7 September 2017.Copts. A very small community representing the large Coptic Church in Egypt.[...] Abyssinian. Also represented by a Bishop in Jerusalem. They, like the Copts, are Monophysites
^Feder, Frank (2017). "The Bashmurite Revolts in the Delta and the 'Bashmuric Dialect'". In Gabra, Gawdat; Takla, Hany N. (eds.).Christianity and Monasticism in Northern Egypt: Beni Suef, Giza, Cairo, and the Nile Delta. American University in Cairo Press. pp. 33–35.
^Lapidus, Ira M. (1972). "The Conversion of Egypt to Islam".Israel Oriental Studies.2: 257.
^Robert Ousterhout, "Rebuilding the Temple: Constantine Monomachus and the Holy Sepulchre" inThe Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 48, No. 1 (March, 1989), pp.66–78
^Werthmuller, Kurt J. (2010).Coptic Identity and Ayyubid Politics in Egypt, 1218-1250. American Univ in Cairo Press. p. 76.ISBN978-0-8054-4073-7.
^N. Swanson, Mark (2010).The Coptic Papacy in Islamic Egypt (641-1517). American Univ in Cairo Press. p. 54.ISBN978-977-416-093-6.By late 1012 the persecution had moved into high gear with demolitions of churches and the forced conversion of Christian ...
^ha-Mizraḥit ha-Yiśreʼelit, Ḥevrah (1988). Asian and African Studies, Volume 22. Jerusalem Academic Press. Muslim historians note the destruction of dozens of churches and the forced conversion of dozens of people to Islam under al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah in Egypt ...These events also reflect the Muslim attitude toward forced conversion and toward converts.
^abMotherland Lost: The Egyptian And Coptic Quest For Modernity. By Samuel Tadros. pp. 64-45
^Haddad, George A. (1970). "A Project for the Independence of Egypt, 1801".Journal of the American Oriental Society.90 (2):169–183.doi:10.2307/598134.JSTOR598134.
^abMariz Tadros (2018). "Christians in Egypt, Libya, and Palestine Responding to the Aftermaths of the Arab Revolts". In Daniel Philpott & Timothy Samuel Shah (ed.).Under Caesar's Sword: How Christians Respond to Persecution. Cambridge Studies in Law and Christianity. Cambridge University Press. pp. 108–113.
^abStanley A. Clark, "Coptic Orthodox Church" inEncyclopedia of Christianity in the United States (eds. George Thomas Kurian & Mark A. Lamport: Rowman & Littlefield, 2016), pp. 638-39.
^Philip J. Hughes, Margaret Fraser, and Stephen Breck Reid (2012).Australia's Religious Communities: Facts and Figures from the 2011 Australian Census and Other Sources.Christian Research Association. p. 78.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Mohamoud YA, Cuadros DF, Abu-Raddad LJ. Characterizing the Copts in Egypt: Demographic, socioeconomic and health indicators, QScience Connect 2013:22doi:10.5339/connect.2013.22
^B. Rugh, Andrea (2016).Christians in Egypt: Strategies and Survival. Springer. p. 30.ISBN978-1-137-56613-3.
^Deighton, H. S. "The Arab Middle East and the Modern World", International Affairs, vol. xxii, no. 4 (October 1946)
^Britannica: Copts, 3 May 2024,The Copts are descendants of pre-Islamic Egyptians. When Egyptian Muslims later ceased to call themselves by the demonym, the term became the distinctive name of the Christian minority.
^Klales, A. R. (2014). "Computed Tomography Analysis and Reconstruction of Ancient Egyptians Originating from the Akhmim Region of Egypt: A Biocultural Perspective". MA Thesis. University of Manitoba.[1]Archived 2017-03-11 at theWayback Machine
^Begoña Dobon; et al. (28 May 2015)."The genetics of East African populations: a Nilo-Saharan component in the African genetic landscape".Scientific Reports.5: 8.Bibcode:2015NatSR...5.9996D.doi:10.1038/srep09996.PMC4446898.PMID26017457.The North African/Middle Eastern genetic component is identified especially in Copts. The Coptic population present in Sudan is an example of a recent migration from Egypt over the past two centuries. They are close to Egyptians in the PCA, but remain a differentiated cluster, showing their own component at k = 4 (Fig. 3). The Coptic component at k = 4 peaks highest among Copts and makes up most of their distribution while it is not predominant among Egyptians. K = 2 to K = 5 (Fig. 3) shows Egyptians distribution resemble Qatar more than Copts. Copts lack the influence found in Egyptians from Qatar, an Arabic population. It may suggest that Copts have a genetic composition that could resemble the ancestral Egyptian population, without the present strong Arab influence
^abTaha, Tarek; Elzalabany, Sagy; Fawzi, Sahar; Hisham, Ahmed; Amer, Khaled; Shaker, Olfat (1 August 2020)."Allele frequency comparative study between the two main Egyptian ethnic groups".Forensic Science International.313 110348.doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2020.110348.ISSN0379-0738.PMID32521421.S2CID219586129.Archived from the original on 3 June 2021. Retrieved14 April 2023."The genetic correlation of the two ethnic groups is investigated using alleles' frequencies statistics, forensic efficiency parameters and populations' homogeneity charts. Graphical methods were used to check the harmony between the two ethnic groups. The results support that Egyptian Muslims and Egyptian Christians genetically originate from the same ancestors."
Courbage, Youssef and Phillipe Fargues. Judy Mabro (Translator)Christians and Jews Under Islam, 1997.
Ibrahim, Vivian.The Copts of Egypt: The Challenges of Modernisation and Identity (I.B. Tauris, distributed by Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 258 pages; examines historical relations between Coptic Christians and the Egyptian state and describes factionalism and activism in the community.
Kamil, Jill.Coptic Egypt: History and a Guide. Revised Ed. American University in Cairo Press, 1990.
Meinardus, Otto Friedrich August.Two Thousand Years of Coptic Christianity (2010)
Van Doorn-Harder, Nelly. "Finding a Platform: Studying the Copts in the 19th and 20th Centuries"International Journal of Middle East Studies (Aug 2010) 42#3 pp 479–482. Historiography
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