Animated, colour-coded map showing some continents and the region ofOceania (purple), which includes the continent of Australia. Depending on theconvention and model, some continents may be consolidated or subdivided.
Acontinent is any of several large geographical regions. Continents are generally identified byconvention rather than any strict criteria. A continent could be a single largelandmass, a part of a very large landmass, as in the case of Asia or Europe withinEurasia, or a landmass and nearby islands within itscontinental shelf. Due to these varying definitions, the number of continents varies; up to seven or as few as four geographical regions are commonly regarded as continents. MostEnglish-speaking countries recognize seven regions as continents. In order from largest to smallest in area, these seven regions areAsia,Africa,North America,South America,Antarctica,Europe, andAustralia (sometimes calledOceania orAustralasia). Different variations with fewer continents merge some of these regions; examples of this are merging Asia and Europe intoEurasia,[1] North America and South America into theAmericas (or simply America), and Africa, Asia, and Europe intoAfro-Eurasia.
Oceanic islands are occasionally grouped with a nearby continent to divide all the world's land into geographical regions. Under this scheme, most of the island countries and territories in thePacific Ocean are grouped together with the continent of Australia to form the geographical region ofOceania.[2]
The idea ofcontinental drift gained recognition in the 20th century. It postulates that the current continents formed from the breaking up of a supercontinent (Pangaea) that formed hundreds of millions of years ago.
Etymology
From the 16th century the English nouncontinent was derived from the termcontinent land, meaning continuous or connected land[5] and translated from the Latinterra continens.[6] The noun was used to mean "a connected or continuous tract of land" ormainland.[5] It was not applied only to very large areas of land—in the 17th century, references were made to thecontinents (or mainlands) of theIsle of Man,Ireland andWales and in 1745 toSumatra.[5] The wordcontinent was used in translating Greek and Latin writings about the three "parts" of the world, although in the original languages no word of exactly the same meaning ascontinent was used.[7]
Whilecontinent was used on the one hand for relatively small areas of continuous land, on the other hand geographers again raised Herodotus's query about why a single large landmass should be divided into separate continents. In the mid-17th century,Peter Heylin wrote in hisCosmographie that "A Continent is a great quantity of Land, not separated by any Sea from the rest of the World, as the whole Continent of Europe, Asia, Africa." In 1727,Ephraim Chambers wrote in hisCyclopædia, "The world is ordinarily divided into two grand continents: theOld and theNew." And in his 1752 atlas,Emanuel Bowen defined a continent as "a large space of dry land comprehending many countries all joined together, without any separation by water. Thus Europe, Asia, and Africa is one great continent, as America is another."[8] However, the old idea of Europe, Asia and Africa as "parts" of the world ultimately persisted with these being regarded as separate continents.
By convention, continents "are understood to be large, continuous, discrete masses of land, ideally separated by expanses of water".[9] By this definition, all continents have to be an island of some metric. In modern schemes with five or more recognized continents, at least one pair of continents is joined by land in some fashion. The criterion "large" leads to arbitrary classification:Greenland, with a surface area of 2,166,086 square kilometres (836,330 sq mi), is only considered the world's largest island, whileAustralia, at 7,617,930 square kilometres (2,941,300 sq mi), is deemed the smallest continent.
Earth's major landmasses all have coasts on a single, continuousWorld Ocean, which is divided into several principal oceanic components by the continents and various geographic criteria.[10][11]
The geological definition of a continent has four criteria: high elevation relative to the ocean floor; a wide range of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks rich in silica; a crust thicker than the surrounding oceanic crust; and well-defined limits around a large enough area.[12]
From the perspective of geology orphysical geography,continent may be extended beyond the confines of continuous dry land to include the shallow, submerged adjacent area (thecontinental shelf)[15] and the islands on the shelf (continental islands), as they are structurally part of the continent.[16]
From this perspective, the edge of the continental shelf is the true edge of the continent, as shorelines vary with changes in sea level.[17] In this sense the islands of Great Britain and Ireland are part of Europe, while Australia and the island of New Guinea together form a continent. Taken to its limit, this view could support the view that there are only three continents: Antarctica, Australia-New Guinea, and a single mega-continent which joins Afro-Eurasia and America via the contiguous continental shelf in and around the Bering Sea. The vast size of the latter compared to the first two might even lead some to say it is the only continent, the others being more comparable to Greenland or New Zealand.[12]
Map ofisland countries: these states are often grouped geographically with a neighboring continental landmass.
As acultural construct, the concept of a continent may go beyond the continental shelf to includeoceanic islands and continental fragments. In this way, Iceland is considered a part of Europe, andMadagascar a part of Africa. Extrapolating the concept to its extreme, some geographers group theAustralian continental landmass with other islands in the Pacific Ocean intoOceania, which is usually considered a region rather than a continent. This divides the entire land surface of Earth into continents, regions, or quasi-continents.[18]
The criterion that each continent is a discrete landmass is commonly relaxed due to historical conventions and practical use. Of the seven most globally recognized continents, only Antarctica and Australia are completely separated from other continents by the ocean. Several continents are defined not as absolutely distinct bodies but as "more or less discrete masses of land".[19] Africa and Asia are joined by theIsthmus of Suez, and North America and South America by theIsthmus of Panama. In both cases, there is no complete separation of these landmasses by water (disregarding theSuez Canal and thePanama Canal, which are both narrow and shallow, as well as human-made). Both of theseisthmuses are very narrow compared to the bulk of the landmasses they unite.
North America and South America are treated as separate continents in the seven-continent model. However, they may also be viewed as a single continent known asAmerica. This viewpoint was common in the United States untilWorld War II, and remains prevalent in some Asian six-continent models.[20] The single American continent model remains a common view in European countries like France, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Malta, Portugal, Spain, Latin American countries and some Asian countries.
The criterion of a discrete landmass is completely disregarded if the continuous landmass ofEurasia is classified as two separate continents (Asia and Europe).Physiographically, Europe and theIndian subcontinent are large peninsulas of the Eurasian landmass. However, Europe is considered a continent with its comparatively large land area of 10,180,000 square kilometres (3,930,000 sq mi), while the Indian subcontinent, with less than half that area, is considered a subcontinent. The alternative view—in geology and geography—that Eurasia is a single continent results in a six-continent view of the world. Some view the separation of Eurasia into Asia and Europe as a residue ofEurocentrism: "In physical, cultural and historical diversity,China andIndia are comparable to the entire European landmass, not to a single European country. [...]."[21] However, for historical and cultural reasons, the view of Europe as a separate continent continues in almost all categorizations.
If continents are defined strictly as discrete landmasses, embracing all the contiguous land of a body, then Africa, Asia, and Europe form a single continent which may be referred to asAfro-Eurasia.[22] Combined with the consolidation of the Americas, this would produce a four-continent model consisting of Afro-Eurasia, America, Antarctica, and Australia.
The following table provides areas given by theEncyclopædia Britannica for each continent in accordance with the seven-continent model, includingAustralasia along withMelanesia,Micronesia, andPolynesia as parts of Oceania. It also provides populations of continents according to 2021 estimates by theUnited Nations Statistics Division based on theUnited Nations geoscheme, which includes all of Egypt (including theIsthmus of Suez and theSinai Peninsula) as a part of Africa, all of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Cyprus, Georgia, Indonesia (includingWestern New Guinea,) Kazakhstan, and Turkey (includingEast Thrace) as parts of Asia, all of Russia (includingSiberia) as a part of Europe, all of Panama and the United States (includingHawaii) as parts of North America, and all of Chile (includingEaster Island) as a part of South America.
Reconstruction of the supercontinentPangaea approximately 200 million years ago
Apart from the current continents, the scope and meaning of the termcontinent includes past geological ones.Supercontinents, largely in evidence earlier in the geological record, are landmasses that comprise most of the world'scratons or continental cores.[60] These have includedVaalbara,Kenorland,Columbia,Rodinia,Pannotia, andPangaea. Over time, these supercontinents broke apart into large landmasses which formed the present continents.
Certain parts of continents are recognized as subcontinents, especially the large peninsulas separated from the main continental landmass by geographical features. The most widely recognized example is theIndian subcontinent.[61] TheArabian Peninsula,Southern Africa, theSouthern Cone of South America, andAlaska in North America might be considered further examples.[61][62]
In many of these cases, the "subcontinents" concerned are on differenttectonic plates from the rest of the continent, providing a geological justification for the terminology.[63]Greenland, generally considered theworld's largest island on the northeastern periphery of theNorth American Plate, is sometimes referred to as a subcontinent.[64][65] This is a significant departure from the more conventional view of a subcontinent as comprising a very large peninsula on the fringe of a continent.[61]
Where the Americas are viewed as a single continent (America), it is divided into two subcontinents (North America andSouth America)[66][67][68] or three (Central America being the third).[69][70] When Eurasia is regarded as a single continent, Asia and Europe are treated as subcontinents.[61]
Some islands lie on sections of continental crust that have rifted and drifted apart from a main continental landmass. While not considered continents because of their relatively small size, they may be consideredmicrocontinents. Madagascar, the largest example, is usually considered an island of Africa, but its divergent evolution has caused it to be referred to as "the eighth continent" from a biological perspective.[73]
Due to a seeming lack of Precambriancratonic rocks, Zealandia's status as a geological continent has been disputed by some geologists.[76] However, a study conducted in 2021 found that part of thesubmerged continent is indeedPrecambrian, twice as old as geologists had previously thought, which is further evidence that supports the idea of Zealandia being a geological continent.[77][78]
All seven geological continents are spatially isolated by geologic features.[79]
History of the concept
Early concepts of the Old World continents
The Ancient Greek geographerStrabo holding a globe showingEuropa andAsia
The term "continent" translates the Greek wordἤπειρος, meaning "landmass, terra firma", the proper name ofEpirus and later especially used for Asia (i.e.Asia Minor).[80]
The first distinction between continents was made byancient Greek mariners who gave the names Europe and Asia to the lands on either side of the waterways of theAegean Sea, theDardanelles strait, theSea of Marmara, theBosporus strait and theBlack Sea.[81] The names were first applied just to lands near the coast and only later extended to include thehinterlands.[82][83] But the division was only carried through to the end of navigable waterways and "... beyond that point the Hellenic geographers never succeeded in laying their finger on any inland feature in the physical landscape that could offer any convincing line for partitioning an indivisible Eurasia ..."[81]
Ancient Greek thinkers subsequently debated whether Africa (then calledLibya) should be considered part of Asia or a third part of the world. Division into three parts eventually came to predominate.[84] From the Greek viewpoint, the Aegean Sea was the center of the world; Asia lay to the east, Europe to the north and west, and Africa to the south.[85] The boundaries between the continents were not fixed. Early on, the Europe–Asia boundary was taken to run from the Black Sea along theRioni River (known then as thePhasis) inGeorgia. Later it was viewed as running from the Black Sea throughKerch Strait, theSea of Azov and along theDon River (known then as theTanais) inRussia.[86] The boundary between Asia and Africa was generally taken to be theNile River.Herodotus[87] in the 5th century BCE objected to the whole ofEgypt being split between Asia and Africa ("Libya") and took the boundary to lie along the western border of Egypt, regarding Egypt as part of Asia.[88][89][90][91] He also questioned the division into three of what is really a single landmass,[92] a debate that continues nearly two and a half millennia later. Herodotus believed Europe to be larger (at least in width) than the other two continents:
I wonder, then, at those who have mapped out and divided the world into Libya, Asia, and Europe; for the difference between them is great, seeing that in length Europe stretches along both the others together, and it appears to me to be wider beyond all comparison.[93]
Eratosthenes, in the 3rd century BCE, noted that some geographers divided the continents by rivers (the Nile and the Don), thus considering them "islands". Others divided the continents byisthmuses, calling the continents "peninsulas". These latter geographers set the border between Europe and Asia at the isthmus between the Black Sea and theCaspian Sea, and the border between Asia and Africa at the isthmus between theRed Sea and the mouth ofLake Bardawil on theMediterranean Sea.[94]
The Roman authorPliny the Elder, writing in the 1st century CE, stated that "The whole globe is divided into three parts, Europe, Asia, and Africa", adding:
I shall first then speak of Europe, the foster-mother of that people which has conquered all other nations, and itself by far the most beauteous portion of the earth. Indeed, many persons have, not without reason, considered it, not as a third part only of the earth, but as equal to all the rest, looking upon the whole of our globe as divided into two parts only, by a line drawn from the river Tanais to the Straits of Gades.[95]
MedievalT and O map showing the three continents as domains of the sons ofNoah—Asia to Sem (Shem), Europe to Iafeth (Japheth), and Africa to Cham (Ham).
Following the fall of theWestern Roman Empire, theculture that developed in its place, linked to Latin and the Catholic church, began to associate itself with the concept of Europe.[83] Through the Roman period and theMiddle Ages, a few writers took theIsthmus of Suez as the boundary between Asia and Africa, but most writers continued to consider it the Nile or the western border of Egypt (Gibbon).[citation needed] In the Middle Ages, the world was usually portrayed onT and O maps, with the T representing the waters dividing the three continents. By the middle of the 18th century, "the fashion of dividing Asia and Africa at the Nile, or at theGreat Catabathmus [the boundary between Egypt andLibya] farther west, had even then scarcely passed away".[96]
European arrival in the Americas
Christopher Columbus sailed across theAtlantic Ocean to theCaribbean in 1492, sparking a period of European exploration of theAmericas. But despite four voyages to the Americas, Columbus never believed he had reached a new continent—he always thought it was part of Asia.
In 1501,Amerigo Vespucci andGonçalo Coelho attempted to sail around what they considered the southern end of the Asian mainland into theIndian Ocean, passing throughFernando de Noronha. After reaching the coast ofBrazil, they sailed along the coast ofSouth America much farther south than Asia was known to extend, confirming that this was a land of continental proportions.[97] On return to Europe, an account of the voyage, calledMundus Novus ("New World"), was published under Vespucci's name in 1502 or 1503,[98] although it seems that it had additions or alterations by another writer.[99] Regardless of who penned the words,Mundus Novus credited Vespucci with saying, "I have discovered a continent in those southern regions that is inhabited by more numerous people and animals than our Europe, or Asia or Africa",[100] the first known explicit identification of part of the Americas as a continent like the other three.
Within a few years, the name "New World" began appearing as a name for South America on world maps, such as the Oliveriana (Pesaro) map of around 1504–1505. Maps of this time, though, still showedNorth America connected to Asia and showed South America as a separate land.[99]
Universalis Cosmographia, Waldseemüller's 1507 world map—the first to show the Americas separate from Asia
In 1507Martin Waldseemüller published a world map,Universalis Cosmographia, which was the first to show North and South America as separate from Asia and surrounded by water. A small inset map above the main map explicitly showed for the first time the Americas being east of Asia and separated from Asia by an ocean, as opposed to just placing the Americas on the left end of the map and Asia on the right end. In the accompanying bookCosmographiae Introductio, Waldseemüller noted that the earth is divided into four parts, Europe, Asia, Africa, and the fourth part, which he named "America" after Amerigo Vespucci's first name.[101] On the map, the word "America" was placed on part of South America.
Beyond four continents
The Sanskrit textRig Veda often dated 1500 BCE[note 1] has the earliest mention of seven continents in the Earth, the text claims that the Earth has seven continents andLord Vishnu Measured the entire universe from his first foot from the land of Earth which has 7 continents.[108]
ato devā avantu no yato viṣṇurvicakrame | pṛthivyāḥ saptadhāmabhiḥ ||
In regard to the above-quoted verses, it is commonly accepted that there are Seven Continents or 'regions of the earth'. A. Glucklich adds that 'In theMatsya Purana, for instance, there is a seven-part map of the world ... [it has] one centre, where an immense mountain –Mount Meru (or Maha Meru, Great Meru) – stands ... The continents encircle the mountain in seven concentric circles ... It seems clear that the Himalayas were the approximate location of Mt. Meru and the text is clear that the earth has seven continents.[108]
Hollandia Nova, 1659 map prepared byJoan Blaeu based on voyages byAbel Tasman andWillem Jansz, this image shows a French edition of 1663
From the late 18th century, some geographers started to regard North America and South America as two parts of the world, making five parts in total. Overall though, the fourfold division prevailed well into the 19th century.[111]
Europeans discoveredAustralia in 1606, but for some time it was taken as part of Asia. By the late 18th century, some geographers considered it a continent in its own right, making it the sixth (or fifth for those still taking America as a single continent).[111] In 1813,Samuel Butler wrote of Australia as "New Holland, an immense island, which some geographers dignify with the appellation of another continent" and theOxford English Dictionary was just as equivocal some decades later.[112] It was in the 1950s that the concept of Oceania as a "great division" of the world was replaced by the concept of Australia as a continent.[113]
Over time, the western concept of dividing the world into continents spread globally, replacing conceptions in other areas of the world. The idea of continents continued to become imbued with cultural and political meaning. In the 19th century during theMeiji period, Japanese leaders began to self-identify with the concept of being Asian, and renew relations with other "Asian" countries while conceiving of the idea of Asian solidarity against western countries. This conception of an Asian identity, as well as the idea of Asian solidarity, was later taken up by others in the region, such as Republican China and Vietnam.[115]
From the mid-19th century, atlases published in the United States more commonly treated North and South America as separate continents, while atlases published in Europe usually considered them one continent. However, it was still not uncommon for American atlases to treat them as one continent up until World War II.[116] From the 1950s, most U.S. geographers divided the Americas into two continents.[116] With the addition of Antarctica, this made the seven-continent model. However, this division of the Americas did not appeal toLatin Americans, who saw their region spanning anAmérica as a single landmass, and there the conception of six continents remains popular.
Some geographers regard Europe and Asia together as a single continent, dubbedEurasia.[117] In this model, the world is divided into six continents, with North America and South America considered separate continents.
Geologists use the termcontinent in a different manner from geographers. In geology, a continent is defined by continental crust, which is a platform ofmetamorphic andigneous rocks, largely ofgranitic composition. Continental crust is less dense and much thicker than oceanic crust, which causes it to "float" higher than oceanic crust on the dense underlyingmantle. This explains why the continents form high platforms surrounded by deep ocean basins.[118][3]
Some geologists restrict the termcontinent to portions of the crust built around stable regions calledcratons. Cratons have largely been unaffected by mountain-building events (orogenies) since thePrecambrian. A craton typically consists of acontinental shield surrounded by acontinental platform. The shield is a region where ancient crystallinebasement rock (typically 1.5 to 3.8 billion years old) is widely exposed at the surface. The platform surrounding the shield is also composed of ancient basement rock, but with a cover of youngersedimentary rock.[119] The continents are accretionary crustal "rafts" that, unlike the denser basaltic crust of the ocean basins, are not subjected to destruction through the plate tectonic process of subduction. This accounts for the great age of the rocks comprising the continental cratons.[120]
The margins of geologic continents are eitheractive orpassive. An active margin is characterised by mountain building, either through a continent-on continent collision or a subduction zone. Continents grow byaccreting lighter volcanic island chains and microcontinents along these active margins, formingorogens. At a passive margin, the continental crust is stretched thin by extension to form acontinental shelf, which tapers off with a gradual slope covered in sediment, connecting it directly to the oceanic crust beyond. Most passive margins eventually transition into active margins: where the oceanic plate becomes too heavy due to cooling, it disconnects from the continental crust, and starts subducting below it, forming a new subduction zone.[121]
Sixteen principal tectonic plates of the continents and the floor of the oceans
There are many microcontinents, orcontinental fragments, that are built of continental crust but do not contain a craton. Some of these are fragments ofGondwana or other ancient cratonic continents:Zealandia,[74] which includesNew Zealand andNew Caledonia;Madagascar; the northernMascarene Plateau, which includes theSeychelles. Other islands, such as several in theCaribbean Sea, are composed largely of granitic rock as well, but all continents contain both granitic and basaltic crust, and there is no clear boundary as to which islands would be considered microcontinents under such a definition. TheKerguelen Plateau, for example, is largely volcanic, but is associated with the breakup of Gondwanaland and is considered a microcontinent,[122][123] whereas volcanicIceland andHawaii are not. TheBritish Isles,Sri Lanka,Borneo, andNewfoundland were on the margins of theLaurasian continent—only separated from the main continental landmass by inland seas flooding its margins.
The movement of plates has caused the continual formation and breakup of continents, and occasionally supercontinents, in a process called theWilson Cycle. The supercontinentColumbia or Nuna formed during a period of 2.0–1.8 billion years ago and broke up about 1.5–1.3 billion years ago.[124][125] The supercontinentRodinia is thought to have formed about 1 billion years ago and to have embodied most or all of Earth's continents, and broken up into eight continents around 600 million years ago. The eight continents later reassembled into another supercontinent calledPangaea; Pangaea broke up into Laurasia (which became North America and Eurasia) andGondwana (which became the remaining continents).[126]
Criticism
Some academics, such as the historical geographerMartin W. Lewis, argue that the systems we understand today are more rooted in social, political, and cultural history than in geological fact, a view particularly outlined in his bookThe Myth of Continents: A Critique of Metageography.[127]
Thomas Oberlies (Die Religion des Rgveda, 1998, p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets a wide range of 1700–1100 BCE.[106]Oberlies 1998, p. 155 gives an estimate of 1100 BCE for the youngest hymns in book 10.[107]
Witzel 1995, p. 4 mentionsc. 1500–1200 BCE. According toWitzel 1997, p. 263, the whole Rig Vedic period may have lasted from c. 1900 BCE to c. 1200 BCE: "the bulk of the RV represents only 5 or 6 generations of kings (and of the contemporary poets) of the Pūru and Bharata tribes. It contains little else before and after this "snapshot" view of contemporary Rgvedic history, as reported by these contemporary "tape recordings." On the other hand, the whole Rgvedic period may have lasted even up to 700 years, from the infiltration of the Indo-Aryans into the subcontinent, c. 1900 B.C. (at the utmost, the time of collapse of the Indus civilization), up to c. 1200 B.C., the time of the introduction of iron which is first mentioned in the clearly post-gvedic hymns of the Atharvaveda."
^In accordance with these attributes, Eurasia and North America are connected by a bridge of continental crust at least 2 thousand kilometers wide. And with Africa, Eurasia is connected by such a bridge (interrupted by internal sections of the oceanic crust) with a width of at least 5 thousand kilometers.
References
^"Continents: What is a Continent?".National Geographic. 20 September 2011.Archived from the original on 16 July 2019. Retrieved6 December 2020. "Most people recognize seven continents—Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia, from largest to smallest—although sometimes Asia and Europe are considered a single continent, Eurasia."
^abNeuendorf, K.K.E.; Mehl, J.P. Jr.; Jackson, J.A., eds. (2005).Glossary of Geology (5th ed.). Alexandria, Virginia: American Geological Institute. p. 139.ISBN978-0922152896.
^Monkhouse, F. J.; Small, John (1978).A Dictionary of the Natural Environment. London: Edward Arnold. pp. 67–68.structurally it includes shallowly submerged adjacent areas (continental shelf) and neighboring islands
^Ollier, Cliff D. (1996). Planet Earth. In Ian Douglas (Ed.),Companion Encyclopedia of Geography: The Environment and Humankind. London: Routledge, p. 30. "Ocean waters extend onto continentalrocks at continental shelves, and the true edges of the continents are the steeper continental slopes. The actual shorelines are rather accidental, depending on the height of sea level on the sloping shelves."
^Lewis & Wigen, The Myth of Continents (1997), Chapter 1: "While it might seem surprising to find North and South America still joined into a single continent in a book published in the United States in 1937, such a notion remained fairly common until World War II. [...] By the 1950s, however, virtually all American geographers had come to insist that the visually distinct landmasses of North and South America deserved separate designations."
^McColl, R.W., ed. (2005)."continents".Encyclopedia of World Geography. Vol. 1. Facts on File, Inc. p. 215.ISBN978-0-8160-7229-3.Archived from the original on 21 February 2023. Retrieved26 June 2012 – viaGoogle Books.And since Africa and Asia are connected at the Suez Peninsula, Europe, Africa, and Asia are sometimes combined as Afro-Eurasia or Eurafrasia. The International Olympic Committee's official flag, containing [...] the single continent of America (North and South America being connected as the Isthmus of Panama).
^"How many continents are there?".Wonderopolis.Archived from the original on 29 May 2023. Retrieved26 April 2020.If you count Europe and Asia as one continent (called Eurasia), then there are six continents. Some people also count North America and South America as one continent (called America), since the two land masses are separated only by the human-made Panama Canal. This would allow for a model with only five continents.wonderopolis
^[1]Archived 26 March 2023 at theWayback Machine "In some textbooks, North and South America are combined into 'America' and/or Europe and Asia are combined into 'Eurasia', for a grand total of 6 or even 5."scienceline
^Martin W. Lewis and Kären E. Wigen, The Myth of Continents: A Critique of Metageography (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1997)Wigen
^[2]Archived 16 May 2023 at theWayback Machine "There are even geographical views that prefer the presence of both a Eurasian as well as one American continent. These geographers therefore contend that there should only be 5 continents."universetoday
^"kontynent".encyklopedia pwn. WN PWN SA.Archived from the original on 7 November 2023.7 November 2023
^"Preamble"(PDF).Olympic Charter. International Olympic Committee. 17 July 2020. p. 10.Archived(PDF) from the original on 19 November 2021. Retrieved3 August 2021.the five interlaced rings, which represent the union of the five continents
p. 98: Thus, we can calculate past positions of the Indian Plate, with the Indian Subcontinent as its passenger, with respect to the Eurasian Plate.
p. 116: The Arabian Subcontinent later, approximately 35 million years ago, collided with southern Eurasia to form the Zagros Mountains of southwestern Iran.
^In Ibero-America, North America usually designates a region (subcontinente in Spanish) of the Americas containing Canada, the United States, and Mexico, and often Greenland, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, and Bermuda; the land bridge of Central America is generally considered a subregion of North America.Norteamérica (Mexican version)Archived 30 January 2009 at theWayback Machine/(Spaniard version)Archived 29 January 2009 at theWayback Machine.Encarta Online Encyclopedia. 2009.
^Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, Henry Stuart Jones,A Greek-English Lexicon (1940), s.v. "ἤπειρος". The English noun was introduced in the mid-16th century, shortened fromcontinent land (15th century), adapted from Latinterra continens "continuous landmass".
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^"Herodotus, Histories, Book IV, Chapters 40-41".penelope.uchicago.edu.As far as India, Asia is an inhabited land; but thereafter all to the east is desert, nor can any man say what kind of land is there. Such is Asia, and such its extent. But Libya is on this second promontory; for Libya comes next after Egypt.
^Herodotus. Translated by George Rawlinson (2000).The Histories of Herodotus of Halicarnassus"Archived copy"(PDF). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 19 August 2006. Retrieved8 February 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link). Ames, Iowa: Omphaloskepsis, book 4, p. 38. "I cannot conceive why three names ... should ever have been given to a tract which is in reality one,"
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^O'Gorman, Edmundo (1961).The Invention of America. Indiana University Press. pp. 106–112.
^Formisano, Luciano (Ed.) (1992).Letters from a New World: Amerigo Vespucci's Discovery of America. New York: Marsilio, pp. xx–xxi.ISBN0-941419-62-2.
^abZerubavel, Eviatar (2003).Terra Cognita: The Mental Discovery of America. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, pp. 77–79.ISBN0-7658-0987-7.
^Formisano, Luciano (Ed.) (1992).Letters from a New World: Amerigo Vespucci's Discovery of America. New York: Marsilio, p. 45.ISBN0-941419-62-2.
^Zerubavel, Eviatar (2003).Terra Cognita: The Mental Discovery of America. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, pp. 80–82.ISBN0-7658-0987-7.
^Müller, F. Max (1883).India: What Can It Teach Us?. London: Longmans, Green & Co. p. 202.Archived from the original on 7 July 2023. Retrieved7 September 2023.
^Lewis & Wigen, The Myth of Continents (1997), p. 32: "...the 1950s... was also the period when... Oceania as a "great division" was replaced by Australia as a continent along with a series of isolated and continentally attached islands. [Footnote 78: When Southeast Asia was conceptualized as a world region during World War II..., Indonesia and the Philippines were perforce added to Asia, which reduced the extent of Oceania, leading to a reconceptualization of Australia as a continent in its own right. This maneuver is apparent in postwar atlases]"
^Lewis, Martin W.; Wigen, Kären E. (1997).The Myth of Continents: a Critique of Metageography. Berkeley: University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-20743-1.
Anthony, David W. (2007),The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World, Princeton University Press
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