Means of communication ormedia are used by people to communicate and exchangeinformation with each other as aninformation sender and areceiver. Diverse arrays of media that reach a large audience via mass communication are calledmass media.
Many different materials are used in communication.Maps, for example, save tedious explanations on how to get to a destination. A means of communication is therefore a means to an end to make communication between people easier, more understandable and, above all, clearer. In everyday language, the termmeans of communication is often equated with themedium. However, the term "medium" is used inmedia studies to refer to a large number of concepts, some of which do not correspond to everyday usage.[1][2]
Means of communication are used for communication between sender and recipient and thus for the transmission of information. Elements of communication include a communication-triggering event, sender and recipient, ameans of communication, apath of communication andcontents of communication.[3] The path of communication is the path that a message travels between sender and recipient; inhierarchies thevertical line of communication is identical tocommand hierarchies.[4] Paths of communication can bephysical (e.g. the road as transportation route) ornon-physical (e.g. networks like acomputer network).Contents of communication can be for example photography, data,graphics, language, ortexts.
Means of communication in the narrower sense refer to technical devices that transmit information.[5] They are the manifestations of contents of communication that can be perceived through the senses and replace the communication that originally ran from person to person and make themreproducible.[6]
Up until the 19th century the term "means of communication" was primarily applied totraffic andcouriers and tomeans of transport andtransportation routes, such as railways, roads and canals,[7] but also used to includepost riders andstagecoachs. In 1861, the national economistAlbert Schäffle defined a means of communication as an aid to the circulation of goods and financial services, which included, among other things, newspapers,telegraphy, mail, courier services,remittance advice, invoices, andbills of lading.[8]
In the period that followed, the "technical means of communication" increasingly came to the foreground, so that as early as 1895 the German newspaper "Deutsches Wochenblatt" reported that these technical means of communication had been improved to such an extent that "everyone all over the world has become our neighbor".[9]
Not until the 20th century was the termmedium also a synonym for these technical means of communication. In the 1920s the termmass media started to become more popular.
A distinction can be made betweenoral,written,screen-oriented transfer of information anddocument transport:[10]
| verbal transfer of information | written transfer of information | screen-oriented transfer of information | Records transport |
|---|---|---|---|
| speech, mobile phones, telephones | letters, postcards,telex | Bildschirmtext,webcam | couriers |
| intercom | fax | online chat, email,presentation programs, SMS,MMS,teletext | conveyor belt message in a bottle |
| virtual assistant | teletex | remote data transmission | pneumatic tube |
| two-way radio,radiotelephones | computer terminals | satellite radio | carrier pigeon |
In this table means of communication are mentioned that are no longer used today.
Furthermore, a distinction can be made between:
Means of communication in the narrower sense are those of technical communication.
In companies (businesses, agencies, institutions) typical means of communication includedocuments, such as analyses,business cases,due diligence reviews,financial analyses, forms,business models,feasibility studies, scientific publications, and contracts.
The means of natural communication or the "primary medias" (seeMedia studies) include:
Means of communication are often differentiated inmodels of communication:
Media as a means of communication in the future will be distinguished:
Mass media refers to reaching many recipients from one – or less than one – sender simultaneously or nearly simultaneously.
Due to their wide dissemination, mass media are suitable for providing the majority of the population with the same information.
Developments intelecommunications have provided for media the ability to conduct long-distance communication via analog and digital media:
Modern communication media include long-distance exchanges between larger numbers of people (many-to-many communication viaemail,Internet forums, andtelecommunications ports). Traditional broadcast media and mass media favorone-to-many communication (television,cinema, radio,newspaper,magazines, andsocial media).[12][13]
Electronic media, specifically social media have become one of the top forms of media that people use in the twenty-first century. The percent of people that use social media and social networking outlets rose dramatically from 5% in 2005 to 79% in 2019.Instagram,Twitter,Pinterest,TikTok, andFacebook are the most commonly used social media platforms. The average time that an individual spends on social media is 2.5 hours a day. This exponential increase of social media has additionally caused a change in which people communicate with others as well as receive information. About 53% use social media to read/watch the news.[14] Many people use the information specifically from social media influencers to understand more about a topic, business, or organization.[15] Social media has now been made part of everyday news production for journalists around the world.[16] Not only does social media provide more connection between readers and journalists, but it also cultivates the participation and community amongst technical communicators and their audiences, clients, and stakeholders.[17]
The gaming community has grown exponentially, and about 65% have taken to playing with others, whether online or in-person.[18] Players online will communicate through the system of microphone applicability either through the game or a third-party application such asDiscord. The improvements upon connectivity and software allowed for players online to keep in touch and game instantaneously, disregarding location almost entirely. With online gaming platforms it has been noted that they support diverse social gaming communities allowing players to feel a sense of belonging through the screen.[19]
Gaming is an activity shared amongst others regardless of age, allowing for a diverse group of players to connect and enjoy their favorite games with. This helps with creating or maintaining relationships: friendships, family, or a significant other.[18]
As with most interactive media content, games have ratings to assist in choosing appropriate games regarding younger audiences. This is done byESRB ratings and consists of the following: E for Everyone, E for Everyone 10+, T for Teen, and M for Mature 18+. Whenever a new game is released, it is reviewed by associations to determine a suitable rating so younger audiences do not consume harmful or inappropriate content.[18] With these ratings it helps the risks and effects of gaming on younger audiences because the exposure of media is believed to influence children's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.[20]
The usage and consumption of gaming has tremendously increased within the last decade with estimates of around 2.3 billion people from around the world playing digital and online video games.[21] The growth rate for the global market for gaming was expected to grow 6.2% towards 2020. Areas like Latin America had a 20.1% increase, Asia-Pacific - 9.2%, North America - 4.0%, and Europe -11.7%.[22]
Studies show that digital and online gaming can be used as a communication method to aid in scientific research and create interaction. The narrative, layout, and gaming features all share a relationship that can deliver meaning and value that make games an innovative communication tool.[23] Research-focused games showed a connection towards a greater usage of dialogue within the science community as players had the opportunity to address issues with a game with themselves and scientists. This helped to push the understanding of how gaming and players can help advance scientific research via communication through games.[24]
A vBook is aneBook that isdigital first media withembeddedvideo,images,graphs,tables,text, and other useful media.[25]
An E-book combines reading and listening media interaction. It is compact and can store a large amount of data which has made them very popular in classrooms.[26]
The role ofregulatory authorities (license broadcaster institutions,content providers, platforms) and the resistance to political and commercial interference in the autonomy of the media sector are both considered as significant components ofmedia independence. In order to ensure media independence, regulatory authorities should be placed outside of governments' directives. This can be measured through legislation, agency statutes and rules.[27]
In the United States, theRadio Act of 1927 established that theradio frequency spectrum waspublic property. This prohibitedprivate organizations from owning any portion of the spectrum.[28] Abroadcast license is typically given to broadcasters by communications regulators, allowing them to broadcast on a certain frequency and typically in a specific geographical location. Licensing is done by regulators in order to manage a broadcasting medium and as a method to prevent the concentration of media ownership.[29]
Licensing has been criticized for an alleged lack oftransparency. Regulatory authorities in certain countries have been accused of exhibitingpolitical bias in favor of the government or ruling party, which has resulted in some prospective broadcasters being denied licenses or being threatened with license withdrawal. As a consequence, there has been a decrease in diversity of content and views in certain countries due to actions made against broadcasters by states via their licensing authorities. This can have an impact on competition and may lead to an excessive concentration of power with potential influence on public opinion.[30] Examples include the failure to renew or retain licenses for editorially critical media, reducing the regulator's competences and mandates for action, and a lack of due process in the adoption of regulatory decisions.[31]
Governments worldwide have sought to extend regulation to internet companies, whetherconnectivity providers orapplication service providers, and whether domestically or foreign-based. The impact on journalistic content can be severe, as internet companies can err too much on the side of caution and take down news reports, including algorithmically, while offering inadequate opportunities for redress to the affected news producers.[27]
InWestern Europe,self-regulation provides an alternative to state regulatory authorities. In such contexts,newspapers have historically been free of licensing and regulation, and there has been repeated pressure for them to self-regulate or at least to have in-houseombudsmen. However, it has often been difficult to establish meaningful self-regulatory entities.
In many cases, self-regulations exists in the shadow of state regulation, and is conscious of the possibility ofstate intervention. In many countries inCentral and Eastern Europe, self-regulatory structures seems to be lacking or have not historically been perceived as efficient and effective.[32]
The rise ofsatellite channels that delivered directly to viewers, or through cable or online systems, renders much larger the sphere of unregulated programing. There are, however, varying efforts to regulate the access ofprogrammers to satellite transponders in parts of theWestern Europe,North America, theArab region and inAsia and the Pacific. The Arab Satellite Broadcasting Charter was an example of efforts to bring formal standards and some regulatory authority to bear on what is transmitted, but it appears to not have been implemented.[33]
Self-regulation is expressed as a preferential system by journalists but also as a support for media freedom and development organizations by intergovernmental organizations such asUNESCO andnon-governmental organizations. There has been a continued trend of establishing self-regulatory bodies, such as press councils, in conflict and post-conflict situations.[34]
Major internet companies have responded to pressure by governments and the public by elaborating self-regulatory and complaints systems at the individual company level, using principles they have developed under the framework of theGlobal Network Initiative. The Global Network Initiative has grown to include several large telecom companies alongside internet companies such asGoogle,Facebook and others, as well ascivil society organizations and academics.[35]
TheEuropean Commission's 2013 publication, ICT Technology Sector Guide on Implementing theUnited Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, impacts on the presence of independent journalism by defining the limits of what should or should not be carried and prioritized in the most popular digital spaces.[36]
Public pressure on technology giants has motivated the development of new strategies aimed not only at identifying 'fake news', but also at eliminating some of the structural causes of their emergence and proliferation. Facebook has created new buttons for users to report content they believe is false, following previous strategies aimed at counteringhate speech and harassment online. These changes reflect broader transformations occurring among tech giants to increase their transparency. As indicated by theRanking Digital Rights Corporate Accountability Index, most large internet companies have reportedly become relatively more forthcoming in terms of their policies about transparency in regard to third party requests to remove or access content, especially in the case of requests from governments.[37][38] At the same time, however, the study signaled a number of companies that have become more opaque when it comes to disclosing how they enforce their own terms of service, in restricting certain types of content and account.[38] State governments can also use "Fake news" in order to spread propaganda.[39]
In addition to responding to pressure for more clearly defined self-regulatory mechanisms, and galvanized by the debates over so-called 'fake news', internet companies such as Facebook have launched campaigns to educate users about how to more easily distinguish between 'fake news' and real news sources. Ahead of theUnited Kingdom national election in 2017, for example, Facebook published a series of advertisements in newspapers with 'Tips for Spotting False News' which suggested 10 things that might signal whether a story is genuine or not.[40] There have also been broader initiatives bringing together a variety of donors and actors to promotefact-checking andnews literacy, such as the News Integrity Initiative at theCity University of New York's School of Journalism. This US$14 million investment by groups including theFord Foundation and Facebook was launched in 2017 so its full impact remains to be seen. It will, however, complement the offerings of other networks such as the International Fact-Checking Network launched by thePoynter Institute in 2015 which seeks to outline the parameters of the field.[41] Instagram has also created a way to potentially expose "fake news" that is posted on the site. After looking into the site, it seemed as more than a place for political memes, but a weaponized platform, instead of the creative space it used to be.[42] Since that, Instagram has started to put warning labels on certain stories or posts if third-party fact checkers believe that false information is being spread.[43] Instagram works with these fact checkers to ensure that no false information is being spread around the site.[44] Instagram started this work in 2019, following Facebook with the idea as they started fact checking in 2016.[44]
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