Condorcet was born inRibemont (in present-dayAisne), descended from the ancient family of Caritat, who took their title from the town ofCondorcet inDauphiné, of which they were long-time residents. Fatherless at a young age, he was taken care of by his devoutly religious mother who dressed him as a girl till age eight. He was educated at theJesuit College inReims and at theCollège de Navarre in Paris, where he quickly showed his intellectual ability and gained his first public distinctions inmathematics.[5] When he was sixteen, his analytical abilities gained the praise ofJean le Rond d'Alembert andAlexis Clairaut; soon, Condorcet would study under d'Alembert.[citation needed]
From 1765 to 1774, he focused on science. In 1765, he published his first work on mathematics, entitledEssai sur lecalcul intégral, which was well received, launching his career as a mathematician. He went on to publish more papers, and on 25 February 1769, he was elected to theAcadémie royale des Sciences.[6]
Jacques Turgot was Condorcet's mentor and longtime friend
His political ideas, many in congruity with Turgot's, were criticized heavily in the English-speaking world, however, most notably byJohn Adams who wrote two of his principal works of political philosophy to oppose Turgot's and Condorcet's unicameral legislature and radical democracy.[9]
In 1774, Condorcet was appointed inspector general of theParis mint by Turgot.[10] From this point on, Condorcet shifted his focus from the purely mathematical to philosophy and political matters. In the following years, he took up the defense ofhuman rights in general, and ofwomen's andBlacks' rights in particular (anabolitionist, he became active in theSociety of the Friends of the Blacks in the 1780s). He supported the ideals embodied by the newly formed United States, and proposed projects of political, administrative and economic reforms intended to transform France.
In 1776, Turgot was dismissed as Controller General. Consequently, Condorcet submitted his resignation as Inspector General of theMonnaie, but the request was refused, and he continued serving in this post until 1791. Condorcet later wroteVie de M. Turgot (1786), a biography which spoke fondly of Turgot and advocated Turgot's economic theories. Condorcet continued to receive prestigious appointments: in 1777, he became Permanent Secretary of theAcadémie des Sciences, holding the post until the abolition of the Académie in 1793; and, in 1782, secretary of theAcadémie française.[11]
In 1785, Condorcet published one of his most important works,Essay on the Application of Analysis to the Probability of Majority Decisions (Essai sur l'application de l'analyse à la probabilité des décisions rendues à la pluralité des voix).[12] It described several now-famous results, includingCondorcet's jury theorem, which states that if each member of a voting group is more likely than not to make a correct decision, the probability that the highest vote of the group is the correct decision increases as the number of members of the group increases, andCondorcet's paradox, which shows that majority preferences can becomeintransitive with three or more options – it is possible for a certain electorate to expressa preference for A over B, a preference for B over C, and a preference for C over A, all from the same set of ballots.[13]
The paper also outlines a genericCondorcet method, designed to simulate pair-wise elections between all candidates in an election. He disagreed strongly with the alternative method of aggregating preferences put forth byJean-Charles de Borda (based on summedrankings of alternatives). Condorcet was one of the first to systematically apply mathematics in thesocial sciences.[citation needed]
He also considered theinstant-runoff voting elimination method, as early as 1788, though only to condemn it, for its ability to eliminate a candidate preferred by a majority of voters.[14][15]
Condorcet's statue by Jacques Perrin (1847–1915), on the Quai de Conti in Paris, France
In 1781, Condorcet anonymously published a pamphlet entitledReflections on Negro Slavery (Réflexions sur l'esclavage des nègres), in which he denouncedslavery.[16] In 1786, Condorcet worked on ideas for thedifferential andintegral calculus, giving a new treatment ofinfinitesimals – a work which apparently was never published. In 1789, he publishedVie de Voltaire (1789), which agreed withVoltaire in his opposition to theChurch. In the same year he was elected as president of theSociety of the Friends of the Blacks and lived in an apartment atHôtel des Monnaies, Paris, across the Louvre.[17] In 1791, Condorcet, along with Sophie de Grouchy,Thomas Paine,Etienne Dumont,Jacques-Pierre Brissot, and Achilles Duchastellet published a brief journal titledLe Républicain, its main goal being the promotion of republicanism and the rejection of constitutional monarchy. The journal's theme was that any sort of monarchy is a threat to freedom no matter who is leading and that liberty is freedom from domination.[18]
Condorcet took a leading role when theFrench Revolution swept France in 1789, hoping for arationalist reconstruction of society, and championed manyliberal causes. As a result, in 1791 he was elected as a Paris representative in theLegislative Assembly, and then became the secretary of the Assembly.
Condorcet was not affiliated with any political party but counted many friends among theGirondins. He distanced himself from them during theNational Convention, however, due to his distaste for their factionalism.
In April 1792 Condorcet presented a project for the reformation of the education system, aiming to create a hierarchical system, under the authority of experts, who would work as the guardians of theEnlightenment and who, independent of power, would be the guarantors of public liberties. The project was judged to be contrary to republican and egalitarian virtues, handing the education of the Nation over to an aristocracy of savants, and Condorcet's proposal was not taken up by the Assembly. Several years later, in 1795, when theThermidorians had gained in strength, theNational Convention would adopt an educational plan based on Condorcet's proposal.[20]
At thetrial of Louis XVI in December 1792, Condorcet, who opposed the death penalty albeit supporting the trial itself, spoke out against the execution of the King during the public vote at the Convention – he proposed to send the king to work as aslave rower on galley ships.
Condorcet was on the Constitution Committee and was the main author of theGirondin constitutional project. This constitution was not put to a vote. When theMontagnards gained control of the convention, they wrote their own, theFrench Constitution of 1793. Condorcet criticized the new work, and as a result, he was branded a traitor. On 3 October 1793, a warrant was issued for Condorcet's arrest.[22]
The warrant forced Condorcet into hiding. He hid for some months in the house of Mme. Vernet in Paris, where he wroteEsquisse d'un tableau historique des progrès de l'esprit humain (Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind), which was published posthumously in 1795 and is considered one of the major texts of the Enlightenment and of historical thought. It narrates the history of civilization as one of progress in the sciences, claims an intimate connection betweenscientific progress and the development of human rights and justice, and outlines the features of a future rational society entirely shaped by scientific knowledge.[25]
On 25 March 1794 Condorcet, convinced he was no longer safe, left his hideout and attempted to flee Paris. He went to seek refuge at the house ofJean-Baptiste Suard, a friend of his with whom he had resided in 1772,[26] but he was refused on the basis that he would be betrayed by one of their residents. Two days later, he was arrested inClamart and imprisoned inBourg-la-Reine (or, as it was known during the Revolution,Bourg-l'Égalité, "Equality Borough" rather than "Queen's Borough") where, after another two days, he was found dead in his cell. The most widely accepted theory is that his friendPierre Jean George Cabanis gave him a poison which he eventually used. However, some historians believe that he may have been murdered (perhaps because he was too loved and respected to be executed). Jean-Pierre Brancourt (in his workL'élite, la mort et la révolution) claims that Condorcet was killed with a mixture ofDatura stramonium and opium.
Condorcet was symbolically interred in thePanthéon in 1989, in honour of the bicentennial of the French Revolution and Condorcet's role as a central figure in the Enlightenment. His coffin, however, was empty as his remains, originally interred in the common cemetery ofBourg-la-Reine, were lost during the nineteenth century.
In 1786 Condorcet marriedSophie de Grouchy, who was more than twenty years his junior. Sophie, reckoned one of the most beautiful women of the day, became an accomplishedsalon hostess as Madame de Condorcet, and also an accomplished translator ofThomas Paine andAdam Smith. She was intelligent and well educated, fluent in both English and Italian. The marriage was a strong one, and Sophie visited her husband regularly while he remained in hiding. Although she began proceedings for divorce in January 1794, it was at the insistence of Condorcet and Cabanis, who wished to protect their property from expropriation and to provide financially for Sophie and their young daughter, Louise 'Eliza' Alexandrine.
During his time in hiding, Condorcet penned a poignant letter to his daughter, who was then a toddler, offering his advice and wisdom to her as she grows to become an adult. The letter stands as a testament, not only for the loving hopes he has for his daughter as a father, but also for his egalitarian vision of the rights and opportunities for women in society.[27]
Condorcet was survived by his widow and four-year-old Eliza. Sophie died in 1822, never having remarried, and having published all her husband's works between 1801 and 1804. Her work was carried on by Eliza, wife of formerUnited IrishmanArthur O'Connor. The Condorcet-O'Connors published a revised edition between 1847 and 1849.
Condorcet's work was mainly focused on a quest for a more egalitarian society. This path led him to think and write about gender equality in the Revolutionary context. In 1790, he published "Sur l'admission des femmes au droit de cité" ("On the Admission of Women to the Rights of Citizenship") in which he strongly advocated for women's suffrage in the new Republic as well as the enlargement of basic political and social rights to include women. One of the most famousEnlightenment thinkers at the time, he was one of the first to make such a radical proposal.
'The rights of men stem exclusively from the fact that they are sentient beings, capable of acquiring moral ideas and of reasoning upon them. Since women have the same qualities, they necessarily also have the same rights. Either no member of the human race has any true rights, or else they all have the same ones; and anyone who votes against the rights of another, whatever his religion, colour or sex, automatically forfeits his own.'[28]: 157
Like fellowEnlightenment thinkerJean-Jacques Rousseau in his bookEmile ou De l'Education (1762), Condorcet identified education as crucial to the emancipation of individuals. However, where Rousseau endorsed a conservative notion of denying women education and equal rights on account of keeping them tied to the domestic sphere where [according to him] they belonged,[29] Condorcet refused to acquit the inequality between men and women to natural disposition. Instead, he believed that the provision of education to women on par with the education provided to men was the pathway to establishing gender equality. He stated: "I believe that all other differences between men and women are simply the result of education".[30]
Condorcet's whole plea for gender equality is founded on the belief that the attribution of rights and authority comes from a false assumption that men possess reason and women do not. He even goes on to argue that women possess their own form of reason that is different from their male compatriots but by no means lesser however this is nonetheless an artificial difference: "There is more truth in this observation, but it still proves nothing since this difference is caused, not by nature, but by education and society..."[31]
His views on rights that must be afforded to women were not limited to education and citizenship but also social freedoms and protections that included the right for women to plan their own pregnancies, provision of access to birth control, and men's obligation to take responsibility for the welfare of children they have fathered, both legitimate and illegitimate and women's right to seek divorce. He also advocated for the criminalization of rape, declaring that it “violates the property which everyone has in her person”.[32]
Scholars[who?] often disagree on the true impact that Condorcet's work had on pre-modern feminist thinking. His detractors[who?] point out that, when he was eventually given some responsibilities in the constitutional drafting process, his convictions did not translate into concrete political action and he made limited efforts to push these issues on the agenda.[33] Some scholars[who?] on the other hand, believe that this lack of action is not due to the weakness of his commitment but rather to the political atmosphere at the time and the absence of political appetite for gender equality on the part of decision-makers.[34] Along with authors such asMary Wollstonecraft,d'Alembert orOlympe de Gouges, Condorcet made a lasting contribution to the pre-feminist debate.[35][according to whom?]
Condorcet'sSketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind (1795) was perhaps the most influential formulation of the idea ofprogress ever written. It made the idea of progress a central concern of Enlightenment thought. He argued that expanding knowledge in the natural and social sciences would lead to an ever more just world of individual freedom, material affluence, and moral compassion. He argued for three general propositions: that the past revealed an order that could be understood in terms of the progressive development of human capabilities, showing that humanity's "present state, and those through which it has passed, are a necessary constitution of the moral composition of humankind"; that the progress of the natural sciences must be followed by progress in the moral and political sciences "no less certain, no less secure from political revolutions"; that social evils are the result of ignorance and error rather than an inevitable consequence of human nature.[36] He was innovative in suggesting that scientific medicine might in the future significantly extend the human life span, perhaps even indefinitely, such that future humans only die of accident, murder and suicide rather than simply old age or disease.[37]Nick Bostrom has thus described him as an earlytranshumanist.[38]
Condorcet's writings were a key contribution to the FrenchEnlightenment, particularly his work on the idea of progress. Condorcet believed that through the use of our senses and communication with others, knowledge could be compared and contrasted as a way of analyzing our systems of belief and understanding. None of Condorcet's writings refer to a belief in a religion or a god who intervenes in human affairs. Condorcet instead frequently had written of his faith in humanity itself and its ability to progress with the help of philosophers such as Aristotle. Through this accumulation and sharing of knowledge he believed it was possible for anybody to comprehend all the known facts of the natural world. Theenlightenment of the natural world spurred the desire for enlightenment of the social and political world. Condorcet believed that there was no definition of the perfect human existence and thus believed that the progression of the human race would inevitably continue throughout the course of our existence. He envisioned man as continually progressing toward a perfectlyutopian society. He believed in the great potential towards growth that man possessed.
However, Condorcet stressed that for this to be a possibility man must unify regardless of race, religion, culture or gender.[39] To this end, he became a member of the FrenchSociété des Amis des Noirs (Society of the Friends of the Blacks).[40] He wrote a set of rules for the Society of the Friends of the Blacks which detailed the reasoning and goals behind the organization along with describing the injustice of slavery and put in a statement calling for the abolition of the slave trade as the first step to true abolition.[28]
Condorcet was also a strong proponent of women's civil rights. He claimed that women were equal to men in nearly every aspect and asked why then should they be debarred from their fundamental civil rights; the few differences that existed were due to the fact that women were limited by their lack of rights. Condorcet even mentioned several women who were more capable than average men, such asQueen Elizabeth andMaria-Theresa.[28] Furthermore, as he argues for the civil, political, and educational rights of women, Condorcet boldly challenges that unless women's natural inferiority to men could be proven, the denial of the aforementioned rights is an "act of tyranny" constituted by the newly formed French nation.[41]
About Islam and China he wrote: "the religion of Mohammed, the simplest in its dogmas, the least absurd in its practices, the most tolerant in its principles, seems to condemn to eternal slavery, to incurable stupidity, this entire vast portion of the Earth where it has extended its empire; while we will see the genius of science and freedom shine beneath the most absurd superstitions, in the midst of the most barbaric intolerance. China offers us the same phenomenon, although the effects of this stupefying poison have been less fatal."[42]
For Condorcet'srepublicanism the nation needed enlightened citizens and education needed democracy to become truly public. Democracy implied free citizens, and ignorance was the source of servitude. Citizens had to be provided with the necessary knowledge to exercise their freedom and understand the rights and laws that guaranteed their enjoyment. Although education could not eliminate disparities in talent, all citizens, including women, had the right to free education. In opposition to those who relied on revolutionary enthusiasm to form the new citizens, Condorcet maintained that revolution was not made to last and that revolutionary institutions were not intended to prolong the revolutionary experience but to establish political rules and legal mechanisms that would insure future changes without revolution. In a democratic city there would be no Bastille to be seized. Public education would form free and responsible citizens, not revolutionaries.[43]
Rothschild (2001) argues that Condorcet has been seen since the 1790s as the embodiment of the cold, rational Enlightenment. However she suggests his writings on economic policy, voting, and public instruction indicate different views both of Condorcet and of the Enlightenment. Condorcet was concerned with individual diversity; he was opposed toproto-utilitarian theories; he considered individual independence, which he described as the characteristic liberty of the moderns, to be of central political importance; and he opposed the imposition of universal and eternal principles. His efforts to reconcile the universality of some values with the diversity of individual opinions are of continuing interest. He emphasizes the institutions of civilized or constitutional conflict, recognizes conflicts or inconsistencies within individuals, and sees moral sentiments as the foundation of universal values. His difficulties call into question some familiar distinctions, for example between French, German, and English-Scottish thought, and between the Enlightenment and the counter-Enlightenment. There was substantial continuity between Condorcet's criticism of the economic ideas of the 1760s and the liberal thought of the early 19th century.[39]
Vie de Voltaire. Paris : Renouard, 1822. Contains also: Mémoires pour servir à la vie de M. de Voltaire / écrits par lui-m^eme. Commentaire historique sur les œuvres de l'auteur de la Henriade. Choix de pièces justificatives pour La vie de Voltaire
Steven Lukes, Nadia Urbinati, ed. (2012).Condorcet: Political Writings. New York: Cambridge University Press (Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought).ISBN978-1107021013.
^Nanson, E. J. (1882)."Methods of election: Ware's Method".Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria.19: 206.The method was, however, mentioned by Condorcet, but only to be condemned.
^Condorcet, Jean-Antoine-Nicolas de Caritat (1788).On the Constitution and the Functions of Provincial Assemblies (in French). Vol. 13 (published 1804). p. 243.En effet, lorsqu'il y a plus de trois concurrents, le véritable vœu de la pluralité peut être pour un candidat qui n'ait eu aucune des voix dans le premier scrutin.{{cite book}}:|work= ignored (help)
^Berges, Sandrine (2015). "Sophie de Grouchy on the Cost of Domination in the Letters on Sympathy and Two Anonymous Articles in Le Républicain".Monist.98:102–112.doi:10.1093/monist/onu011.hdl:11693/12519 – via Florida International University.
^Roman, Hanna (6 February 2015). "Conjecturing a New World in Condorcet's Esquisse d'un tableau historique des progrès de l'esprit humain".MLN.129 (4):780–795.doi:10.1353/mln.2014.0077.ISSN1080-6598.S2CID162365727.
^abcSteven Lukes, Nadia Urbinati (2012).Condorcet: Political Writings. New York: Cambridge University Press, New York. pp. 148–155,156–162.ISBN978-1107021013.
^Condorcet, Jean-Antoine-Nicolas De Carit (1968).Oeuvres. Publiées par A. Condorcet O'Connor et F. Arago; Tome 10. BiblioBazaar (published 27 August 2016).ISBN978-0274483563.
^Pappas, John (1991).Condorcet: le seul et premier féministe du 18ème siècle?. pp. 430–441.
^Devance, Louis (2007).Le Feminisme pendant la Revolution Francaise. p. 341.
^Glawe, Eddie (June 2014)."Benjamin Banneker".Professional Surveyor Magazine.39 (6). Flatdog Media, Inc. Archived fromthe original on 7 July 2014. Retrieved11 March 2017.
"Condorcet and mesmerism : a record in the history of scepticism", Condorcet manuscript (1784), online and analyzed onBibnum[click 'à télécharger' for English version].
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