Thecommon myna orIndian myna (Acridotheres tristis), sometimes spelledmynah,[2] is abird in thefamilySturnidae, native to Asia. An omnivorous open woodland bird with a strong territorial instinct, the common myna has adapted extremely well tourban environments.
The range of the common myna is increasing at such a rapid rate that in 2000 theIUCN Species Survival Commission declared it one of the world's mostinvasive species and one of only three birds listed among "100 of the World's Worst Invasive Species" that pose a threat to biodiversity, agriculture and human interests.[3] In particular, the species poses a serious threat to theecosystems ofAustralia, where it was named "The Most Important Pest/Problem" in 2008.[4]
In 1760, the French zoologistMathurin Jacques Brisson included a description of the common myna in hisOrnithologie, based on a specimen that he mistakenly believed had been collected in the Philippines. He used the French nameLe merle des Philippines and the LatinMerula Philippensis.[5] Although Brisson coined Latin names, they do not conform to thebinomial system and are not recognised by theInternational Commission on Zoological Nomenclature.[6]
When the Swedish naturalist,Carl Linnaeus, updated hisSystema Naturae in 1766, for the12th edition, he added 240 species that had been previously described by Brisson.[6] One of them was the common myna. Linnaeus included a brief description, coined thebinomial nameParadisea tristis and cited Brisson's work.[7] Thetype location was subsequently corrected toPondicherry in southern India.[8] Thespecific nametristis is Latin for "sad" or "gloomy".[9] This species is now placed in the genusAcridotheres that was introduced by the French ornithologistLouis Pierre Vieillot in 1816.[10] The generic nameAcridotheres is from theGreek ακριδος (akridos), meaning locust, and θηρας (theras), meaning hunter.
theIndian myna (A. t. tristis) (Linnaeus, 1766) – It is found from southernKazakhstan,Turkmenistan and easternIran to southernChina,Indochina, theMalay Peninsula and southernIndia. It has also been introduced toHawaii andNorth America. Populations from the northwest of its range have sometimes been separated as a distinct subspecies, A. t. neumanni, while populations from Nepal and Myanmar have been described asA. t. tristoides.[12]
theSri Lankan myna (A. t. melanosternus)Legge, 1879 – Sri Lanka
The Sri Lankan subspeciesmelanosternus is darker than the Indian subspeciestristis and has half-black and half-white primary coverts and a larger yellow cheek-patch.[13][14]
The common myna is readily identified by the brown body, black hooded head and the bare yellow patch behind the eye. The bill and legs are bright yellow. They have rounded wings as well, and a round square tipped tail. There is a white patch on the outer primaries and the wing lining on the underside is white, as well as having a white tail tip. The sexes are similar and birds are usually seen in pairs.[15]The common myna obeysGloger's rule in that the birds from northwestern India tend to be paler than their darker counterparts in southern India.[13][14]
Thecalls includes croaks, squawks, chirps, clicks, whistles and 'growls', and the bird often fluffs its feathers and bobs its head in singing. The common myna screeches warnings to its mate or other birds in cases of predators in proximity or when it is about to take off flying.[16] Common mynas are popular as cage birds for their singing and "speaking" abilities. Before sleeping in communal roosts, common mynas vocalise in unison, which is known as "communal noise".[17]
It is typically found in open woodland, cultivation and around habitation. Although it is an adaptable species, its population is abnormal and very much considered a pest inSingapore (where it is locally called asgembala kerbau, literally 'buffalo shepherd') due to competition with the related introducedJavan myna.[21]
The common myna thrives in urban and suburban environments; inCanberra, for instance, 110 common mynas were released between 1968 and 1971. By 1991, common myna population density in Canberra averaged 15 birds per square kilometer.[22] Only three years later, a second study found an average population density of 75 birds per square kilometer in the same area.[23]
The bird likely owes its success in the urban and suburban settings of Sydney and Canberra to itsevolutionary origins; having evolved in the openwoodlands of India, the common myna is pre-adapted to habitats with tall vertical structures and little to no vegetative ground cover,[24] features characteristic of city streets and urban nature preserves.
The common myna (along withcommon starlings,house sparrows, and feralrock doves) is a nuisance to city buildings; its nests block gutters and drainpipes, causing water damage to building exteriors.[25]
Common mynas are believed to pair for life. They breed through much of the year depending on the location, building their nest in a hole in a tree or wall. They breed at elevations of 0–3,000 m (0–9,843 ft) in theHimalayas.[13]
The normalclutch size is 4–6 eggs. The average size of the egg is 30.8 by 21.99 millimetres (1+1⁄4 in × 3⁄4 in). The incubation period is 17 to 18 days and fledging period is 22 to 24 days.[13] TheAsian koel is sometimesbrood parasitic on this species.[26] Nesting material used by common mynas includes twigs, roots, tow and rubbish. Common mynas have been known to use tissue paper, tin foil and sloughed off snake-skin.[13]
During the breeding season, the daytime activity-time budget of the common myna in Pune in April to June 1978 has been recorded to comprise the following: nesting activity (42%), scanning the environment (28%), locomotion (12%), feeding (4%), vocalisation (7%) and preening-related activities, interactions and other activities (7%).[27]
The common myna uses the nests of woodpeckers, parakeets, etc. and easily takes to nest boxes; it has been recorded evicting the chicks of previously nesting pairs by holding them in the beak and later sometimes not even using the emptied nest boxes. This aggressive behaviour contributes to its success as an invasive species.[28]
There is also some evidence that shows that in introduced environments, the species chooses to nest in more modified and artificial structures than in natural tree cavities when compared to native species.[29]
Like most starlings, the common myna is omnivorous. It feeds oninsects,grubs,earthworms,arachnids,crustaceans,reptiles, small mammals, seeds, grain, fruits, flower nectar and petals, and discarded waste from human habitation.[30] It forages on the ground among grass for insects, and especially forgrasshoppers, from which it gets the generic nameAcridotheres, "grasshopper hunter". It, however, feeds on a wide range of insects, mostly picked from the ground.[13][31] It is a cross-pollinator of flowers such asSalmalia andErythrina. It walks on the ground with occasional hops and is an opportunistic feeder on the insects disturbed by grazing cattle as well as fired grass fields.[13] They prey on eggs and young of other birds, such asHawaiʻi ʻakepas (Loxops coccineus).[30] They sometimes even wade in shallow waters to catch fish.[30] Living in close proximity to human-made habitats, common mynas may also appear near roadsides to feed on roadkill.[32]
Common mynas roost communally throughout the year, either in pure or mixed flocks withjungle mynas,rosy starlings,house crows,jungle crows,cattle egrets androse-ringed parakeets and other birds. The roost population can range from less than one hundred to thousands.[33][34] The time of arrival of mynas at the roost starts before and ends just after sunset. The mynas depart before sunrise. The time and timespan of arrival and departure, time taken for final settlement at the roost, duration of communal sleep, flock size and population vary seasonally.[17][35][36]
The function ofcommunal roosting is to synchronise various social activities, avoid predators, exchange information about food sources.[37]
Communal displays (pre-roosting and post-roosting) consist of aerial maneuvers which are exhibited in the pre-breeding season (November to March). It is assumed that this behaviour is related to pair formation.[38]
The common myna is regarded as a pest in South Africa, North America, the Middle East, Australia, New Zealand and many Pacific islands. It is particularly problematic in Australia.[43] Several methods have been tried to control the bird's numbers and protect native species.[44]
InAustralia, the common myna is aninvasivepest. They are often the predominant bird in urban areas along the wholeeast coast. In a 2008 popular vote, the bird was named "The Most Important Pest/Problem" in Australia. They have earned the nickname "flying rats", due to their numbers and their scavenging behaviour. They are also known as "thecane toad of the sky".[4] However, there is little scientific consensus concerning the extent of its impact on native species.[45][46]
The common myna was first introduced to Australia between 1863 and 1872, inVictoria, to control insects in the market gardens ofMelbourne. At about the same time, the bird is likely to have spread toNew South Wales, where it is currently most populous, but documentation is uncertain.[47] The bird was later introduced to Queensland as a predator ofgrasshoppers andcane beetles. Common myna populations in Australia are now concentrated along the eastern coast aroundSydney and its surrounding suburbs,[48] with sparser populations in Victoria and a few isolated communities inQueensland.[49] During 2009, several municipal councils in New South Wales began trials of catching myna birds in an effort to reduce numbers.[50]
The myna can live and breed in a wide range of temperatures, ranging from the frosty winters ofCanberra to the tropical climate ofCairns. Self-sustaining populations have been found in regions with a mean monthly highest temperature no less than 23.2 °C (73.8 °F) and a mean monthly lowest temperature no less than −0.4 °C (31.3 °F), implying that the common myna could spread from Sydney northwards along the eastern coast to Cairns, and westwards along the southern coast toAdelaide, but not toTasmania,Darwin, or the arid outback regions.[49]
The common myna was introduced to both the North Island and South Island of New Zealand in the 1870s. However, the cooler summer temperatures in the South Island appear to have impeded the breeding success rate of the southern populations, preventing the proliferation of the species, which was largely non-existent there by the 1890s. In contrast, the North Island population was able to breed more successfully and large portions of the North Island are now populated. However, in the southern reaches of the North Island, the cooler summer temperatures, like those of the South Island, have prevented the establishment of large myna populations.[54][32] Since the 1950s, mynas have spread northwards and presently inhabit beyond the Waikato region,[55] leading to a majority of its successful population thriving upon lower latitude regions due to the warmer climate.[55] At present, mynas have become especially common in regions of lower latitude, particularly the Northland region,[32] but rarely found south of Whanganui.[56]
In South Africa, where it escaped into the wild in 1902, it has become very common and its distribution is greater where human populations are greater or where there is more human disturbance.[57] The bird is also notorious for being a pest, kicking other birds out of their nests and killing their young due to the myna's strong territorial instinct. It is considered somewhat of a major pest and disturbance of the natural habitat; as a result, it has been declared an invasive species,[58] requiring it to be controlled.
Morphological studies show that the process of spatial sorting is at work on the range expansion ofA. tristis in South Africa.[59] Dispersal-relevant traits are significantly correlated with distance from the range core, with strong sexual dimorphism, indicative of sex-biased dispersal. Morphological variations are significant in wing and head traits of females, suggesting females as the primary dispersing sex. In contrast, traits not related to dispersal such as those associated with foraging show no signs of spatial sorting but are significantly affected by environmental variables such as vegetation and intensity of urbanisation. To study theinvasion genetics and landscape-scale dynamics ofA. tristis in South Africa, scientists have recently developed 16 polymorphic nuclear microsatellite markers[60] using thenext generation sequencing (NGS) approach.
The common myna is a hollow-nesting species; that is, it nests and breeds in protected hollows found either naturally in trees or artificially on buildings (for example, recessed windowsills or low eaves).[62] Compared to native hollow-nesting species, the common myna is extremely aggressive, and breeding males will actively defend areas ranging up to 0.83hectares in size (though males in densely populated urban settings tend to only defend the area immediately surrounding their nests).[63]
This aggressiveness has enabled the common myna to displace many breeding pairs of native hollow-nesters, thereby reducing their reproductive success. In Australia, their aggressiveness has enabled them to chase native birds as large asgalahs out of their nests.
The common myna is also known to maintain up to tworoosts simultaneously; a temporary summer roost close to a breeding site (where the entire local male community sleeps during the summer, the period of highest aggression), and a permanent all-year roost where the female broods and incubates overnight. Both male and female common mynas will fiercely protect both roosts at all times, leading to further exclusion of native birds.[63]
The common myna (which feeds mostly on ground-dwellinginsects, tropical fruits such as grapes, plums and someberries and, in urban areas, discarded human food)[64] poses a serious threat to Australianblueberry crops, though its main threat is to native bird species.[65]
In Hawaii, where the common myna was introduced to control pestarmyworms andcutworms insugarcane crops, the bird has helped to spread the robustLantana camara weed across the islands' opengrasslands.[66] It also has been recorded as the fourth-ranking avian pest in the fruit industry by a 2004 survey of the Hawaiian Farm Bureau and the sixth in number of complaints of avian pests overall.[67]
Common mynas can cause considerable damage to ripening fruit, particularly grapes, but also figs, apples, pears, strawberries, blueberries, guava, mangoes and breadfruit. Cereal crops such as maize, wheat and rice are susceptible where they occur near urban areas. Roosting and nesting commensal with humans create aesthetic and health concerns. Common mynas are known to carry avian malaria and exotic parasites such as theOrnithonyssus bursia mite, which can cause dermatitis in humans. The common myna can help spread agricultural weeds: for example, it spreads the seeds ofLantana camara, which has been classed as a Weed of National Significance because of its invasiveness. Common mynas are regularly observed to usurp nests and hollows, destroy the eggs and kill the young of native bird species, including seabirds and parrots. There is evidence that common mynas have killed small landmammals such as mice, squirrels and possums, but further research on these occurrences is under consideration.[68]
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The common myna, being a major agricultural pest and posing a threat to native species in non-native countries, is controlled by various factors. Mynas are either killed or chased away as control. Poison,[55] shooting,[55] cage traps,[55] and bird-scaring devices[55] are currently used for control.
In culture
InSanskrit literature, the common myna has a number of names, most are descriptive of the appearance or behaviour of the bird. In addition tosaarika, the names for the common myna includekalahapriya, which means "one who is fond of arguments" referring to the quarrelsome nature of this bird;chitranetra, meaning "picturesque eyes";peetanetra (one with yellow eyes) andpeetapaad (one with yellow legs).[69]
The bird calledśārikā (Sanskrit:सारिक)[a] seems to refer to the common myna,[70][b] though there are other candidates.
^abAllen, J.A. (1910). "Collation of Brisson's genera of birds with those of Linnaeus".Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History.28:317–335.hdl:2246/678.
^Jobling, J.A. (2018). del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J.; Christie, D.A.; de Juana, E. (eds.)."Key to Scientific Names in Ornithology".Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions. Retrieved11 May 2018.
^Kannan, Ragupathy; James, Douglas A. (2020-03-04), Billerman, Shawn M.; Keeney, Brooke K.; Rodewald, Paul G.; Schulenberg, Thomas S. (eds.),"Common Myna (Acridotheres tristis)",Birds of the World, Cornell Lab of Ornithology,doi:10.2173/bow.commyn.01, retrieved2021-08-23
^abcdefghijAli, Salim; Ripley, S. Dillon (2001).Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Volume 5 (2 (paperback) ed.). India: Oxford University Press. p. 278.ISBN978-0-19-565938-2.
^abRasmussen, Pamela C.; Anderton, John C. (2005).Birds of South Asia - The Ripley Guide (volume 2). Smithsonian Institution, Washington & Lynx edicions, Barcelona. pp. 584, 683.ISBN978-84-87334-66-5.
^Rasmussen, PC & JC Anderton (2005).Birds of South Asia: The Ripley Guide. Vol 2. Smithsonian Institution & Lynx Edicions. p. 584.
^Griffin, Andrea S. (2008). "Social learning in Indian mynahs,Acridotheres tristis: the role of distress calls".Animal Behaviour.75 (1):79–89.doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.04.008.S2CID53184596.
^Pande, Satish; Tambe, Saleel; Clement, Francis M; Sant, Niranjan (2003).Birds of Western Ghats, Kokan and Malabar (including birds of Goa). Mumbai: Bombay Natural History Society & Oxford University Press. pp. 312, 377.ISBN978-0-19-566878-0.
^Mathew, DN; Narendran, TC; Zacharias, VJ (1978). "A comparative study of the feeding habits of certain species of Indian birds affecting agriculture".J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.75 (4):1178–1197.
^abcTaonga, New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu."Starlings and mynas".teara.govt.nz.
^Grarock et al (2013) Are invasive species drivers of native species decline or passengers of habitat modification? A case study of the impact of the common myna (Acridotheres tristis) on Australian bird species. Austral Ecology.
^Old, Julie M.; Spencer, Ricky-John; Wolfenden, Jack (2014). "The Common Myna (Sturnus tristis) in urban, rural and semi-rural areas in Greater Sydney and its surrounds".Emu - Austral Ornithology.114 (3):241–248.Bibcode:2014EmuAO.114..241O.doi:10.1071/MU13029.S2CID84731024.
^Berthouly-Salazar, C.; Cassey, P.; van Vuuren, B.J.; van Rensburg, B.J.; Hui, C.; le Roux, J.J. (2012). "Development and characterization of 13 new, and cross amplification of 3, polymorphic nuclear microsatellite loci in the Common myna (Acridotheres tristis)".Conservation Genetics Resources.4 (3):621–624.Bibcode:2012ConGR...4..621B.doi:10.1007/s12686-012-9607-8.hdl:10019.1/113194.S2CID16022159.
^"COMMON MYNA Acridotheres tristis"(PDF).Hbs.bishopmuseum.org. Retrieved18 March 2022.No introduced species in Hawaii has elicited so much opinion as the Common Myna, perhaps in part due to its intelligence and amusing anthropomorphic qualities. Although they were thought to be of "great value to the aviculturist" in Hawaii for controlling pests (Bryan 1937b), it was also generally vilified for its noisy habits, "quarrelsome" and opportunistic nature, disturbance to domestic pigeons, fruit-eating and nest-robbing habits, and the possibility of its adversely affecting native bird populations (e.g., Finsch 1880; Wilson 1890a; Rothschild 1900; Perkins 1901, in Evenhuis 2007:75)
^Horsfield, Thomas;Moore, Frederic (1856–1858),"806. Acridotheres Tristis, Linn. Sp.",A catalogue of the birds in the Museum of the Honorable East India Company, vol. 2, East India Company. Museum., pp. 532–534,..Thurdus Salica,F. (B.)Hamilton, MS. I.,p. 12 / Paradise Grackle,Latham. / The Common Hill Mynah.
Pell, A.S.; Tidemann, C.R. (1997a). "The Ecology of the Common Myna in Urban Nature Reserves in the Australian Capital Territory".Emu – Austral Ornithology.97 (2):141–149.Bibcode:1997EmuAO..97..141P.doi:10.1071/MU97018.ISSN0158-4197.
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