Cold War (1985–1991)
Part of theCold War
The 1991 signing of theBelovezha Accords, which effectivelydissolved the Soviet Union and ended the Cold War
Date 1985–1991 Location Europe,Asia,Africa Result Western Bloc victory
Belligerents
Western Bloc: NATO •United States •United Kingdom •West Germany Allied states •Panama Allied organisations •Afghan Mujahideen •Nicaraguan Contras 1989 protest movements •China •Czechoslovakia •East Germany •Poland •Romania	Eastern Bloc: Warsaw Pact •Soviet Union •Czechoslovak Socialist Republic •East Germany •Polish People's Republic •Socialist Republic of Romania Allied states •Democratic Republic of Afghanistan •Nicaragua Other socialist states •China
Commanders and leaders
Ronald Reagan George H. W. Bush	Mikhail Gorbachev

Part ofa series on
History of theCold War
Origins World War II Hiroshima and Nagasaki Aftermath Eastern Bloc Western Bloc Iron Curtain
Periods 1947–1948 1948–1953 1953–1962 1962–1979 1979–1985 1985–1991 Post–Cold War era
Related topics Fascist Cold War Timeline Historiography Related conflicts Relations since 1989 Second Cold War Post-Soviet conflicts Arab Cold War Cold War in Asia Reagan Doctrine
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The time period of around 1985–1991 marked the final period of theCold War. It was characterized by systemic reform within the Soviet Union, the easing of geopolitical tensions between theSoviet-led bloc and theUnited States-led bloc, thecollapse of the Soviet Union's influence in Eastern Europe, and thedissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.

The beginning of this period is marked by the ascent ofMikhail Gorbachev to the position ofGeneral Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Seeking to bring an end to the economic stagnation associated with theBrezhnev Era, Gorbachev initiated economic reforms (perestroika), and political liberalization (glasnost). While the exact end date of the Cold War is debated among historians, it is generally agreed upon that the implementation of nuclear and conventional arms control agreements, thewithdrawal of Soviet military forces from Afghanistan and Eastern Europe, and the collapse of the Soviet Union marked the end of the Cold War.

After the deaths of three successive elderly Soviet leaders since 1982, the SovietPolitburo elected GorbachevCommunist Party General Secretary in March 1985, marking the rise of a new generation of leadership. Under Gorbachev, relatively young reform-orientedtechnocrats, who had begun their careers in the heyday of "de-Stalinization" under reformist leaderNikita Khrushchev, rapidly consolidated power, providing new momentum for political andeconomic liberalization, and the impetus for cultivating warmer relations and trade with the West.

On the Western front, President Reagan's administration had taken a hard line against the Soviet Union. Under theReagan Doctrine, the Reagan administration began providing military support toanti-communist armed movements inAfghanistan,Angola,Nicaragua and elsewhere.

A major breakthrough came in 1985–87, with the successful negotiation of theIntermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF). The INF Treaty of December 1987, signed by Reagan and Gorbachev, eliminated all nuclear and conventional missiles, as well as their launchers, with ranges of 500–1,000 kilometres (310–620 mi) (short-range) and 1,000–5,500 kilometres (620–3,420 mi) (intermediate-range). The treaty did not cover sea-launched missiles. By May 1991, after on-site investigations by both sides, 2,700 missiles had been destroyed.^[1][2]

The Reagan administration also persuaded theSaudi Arabian oil companies to increase oil production.^[3] This led to athree-times drop in the prices of oil, and oil was the main source of Soviet export revenues.^[3] Following the USSR's previous large military buildup, President Reagan ordered an enormous peacetime defense buildup of theUnited States Armed Forces; the Soviets did not respond to this by building up their military because the military expenses, in combination withcollectivized agriculture in the nation, and inefficientplanned manufacturing, would cause a heavy burden for theSoviet economy. It was already stagnant and in a poor state prior to the tenure of Mikhail Gorbachev who, despite significant attempts at reform, was unable to revitalise the economy.^[4] In 1985, Reagan and Gorbachev held their first of four "summit" meetings, this one inGeneva,Switzerland. After discussing policy, facts, etc., Reagan invited Gorbachev to go with him to a small house near the beach. The two leaders spoke in that house well over their time limit, but came out with the news that they had planned two more (soon three more) summits.

The second summit took place the following year, in 1986 on October 11, inReykjavík,Iceland. Themeeting was held to pursue discussions about scaling back theirintermediate-range ballistic missile arsenals inEurope. The talks came close to achieving an overall breakthrough onnuclear arms control, but ended in failure due to Reagan's proposedStrategic Defense Initiative and Gorbachev's proposed cancellation of it. Nonetheless, cooperation continued to increase and, where it failed, Gorbachev reduced some strategic arms unilaterally.

Fundamental to the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Gorbachev policy initiatives of Restructuring (Perestroika) and Openness (Glasnost) had ripple effects throughout the Soviet world, including eventually making it impossible to reassert central control overWarsaw Pact member states without resorting to military force.

On June 12, 1987, Reaganchallenged Gorbachev to go further with his reforms and democratization by tearing down theBerlin Wall. In a speech at theBrandenburg Gate next to the wall, Reagan stated:

General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union, Central and South-East Europe, if you seek liberalization, come here to this gate; Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!^[5]

While the aging communist European leaders kept their states in the grip of "normalization", Gorbachev's reformist policies in the Soviet Union exposed how a once revolutionaryCommunist Party of the Soviet Union had become moribund at the very center of the system. Facing declining revenues due to declining oil prices and rising expenditures related to the arms race and the command economy, the Soviet Union was forced during the 1980s to take on significant amounts of debt from the Western banking sector.^[6] The growing public disapproval of theSoviet–Afghan War, and the socio-political effects of theChernobyl accident inUkraine increased public support for these policies. By the spring of 1989, the USSR had not only experienced lively media debate, but had also held itsfirst multi-candidate elections. For the first time in recent history, the force of liberalization was spreading from West to East.

Grassroots organizations, such asPoland'sSolidarity movement, rapidly gained ground with strong popular bases. In February 1989 thePolish People's Republic opened talks with opposition, known as thePolish Round Table Agreement, which allowed elections with participation of anti-Communist parties in June 1989.

The initially inconspicuous opening of a border gate of theIron Curtain betweenAustria andHungary in August 1989 then triggered a chain reaction, at the end of which theGerman Democratic Republic no longer existed and the Eastern Bloc had disintegrated. The idea for thePan-European Picnic came fromOtto von Habsburg and was intended as a test of whether the Soviet Union would react when the iron curtain was opened. The Pan-European Union Austria then advertised with leaflets in Hungary to makeEast Germans aware of the possibility of escape. The result of the greatest mass exodus since the building of theBerlin Wall and the non-reaction of the Eastern bloc states showed the oppressed population that their governments had lost absolute power. Subsequently, large numbers ofEast German refugees attempted to flee through Hungary and the weak reactions showed that the communist leaders lost even more power.^{[7][8][9][10]}

Also in 1989 the Communist government inHungary started to negotiate organizing of competitive elections which took place in 1990. InCzechoslovakia andEast Germany, mass protests unseated entrenched Communist leaders. The Communist regimes inBulgaria andRomania also crumbled, in the latter case as the result of aviolent uprising. Attitudes had changed enough thatUS Secretary of StateJames Baker suggested that the American government would not be opposed to Soviet intervention in Romania, on behalf of the opposition, to prevent bloodshed.^[11] The tidal wave of change culminated with thefall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, which symbolized the collapse of European Communist governments and graphically ended theIron Curtain divide of Europe.

The collapse of the Eastern European governments with Gorbachev's tacit consent inadvertently encouraged severalSoviet republics to seek greater independence from Moscow's rule. Agitation for independence in theBaltic states led to firstLithuania, and thenEstonia andLatvia, declaring their independence. Disaffection in the other republics was met by promises of greater decentralization. More open elections led to the election of candidates opposed toCommunist Party rule.

In an attempt to halt the rapid changes to the system, a group of Soviet hard-liners represented by Vice-presidentGennady Yanayev launched acoup overthrowing Gorbachev in August 1991. Russian PresidentBoris Yeltsin rallied the people and much of the army against the coup and the effort collapsed. Although restored to power, Gorbachev's authority had been irreparably undermined. In September, the Baltic states were granted independence. On December 1,Ukraine withdrew from the USSR. On December 26, 1991, the USSR officially dissolved, breaking up into fifteen separate nations.

After the end of theRevolutions of 1989, Gorbachev andPresident Bush Sr.met on the neutral island ofMalta to discuss the events of the year, the withdrawal of the Soviet military from Eastern Europe, and the future course oftheir relationship. After their discussions, the two leaders publicly announced they would work together for German reunification, the normalization of relations, the resolution ofThird World conflicts, and the promotion of peace and democracy (referred to by President Bush as a "New World Order").^[12]

Between the Malta Summit and theDissolution of the Soviet Union negotiations on several arms control agreements began, resulting in agreements such asSTART I and theChemical Weapons Convention. Additionally, the United States, still believing the Soviet Union would continue to exist in the long term, began to take steps to create a positive long-term relationship.^[13]

This new relationship was demonstrated by the joint American-Soviet opposition toIraq's invasion of Kuwait. The Soviet Union voted in theUnited Nations Security Council in favor ofResolution 678 authorizing the use of military force against itsformer Middle Eastern ally.^[14]

Several conflicts in third world nations (i.e.Cambodia,Angola,Nicaragua) related to the Cold War would come to an end during this era of cooperation, with both the Soviet Union and the United States working together to pressure their respectiveproxies to make peace with one another. Overall, this détente which accompanied the final twilight of the Cold War would help bring about a relatively more peaceful world.^[15]

As a consequence of the Revolutions of 1989 and the adoption of a foreign policy based on non-interference by the Soviet Union, theWarsaw Pact was dissolved andSoviet troops began withdrawing back to the Soviet Union, completing their withdrawal by the mid-1990s.^[16][17]

The United States had established a complex global presence by the 1990s and policymakers felt that some structure to explain the "threats, interests and priories" that guide foreign policy was needed, but there was no agreement on how to proceed.Anthony Lake has said that attempts at doctrine making during this period risked introducing "neo-know-nothing" isolationism or what he termed "irrational" ideas. The goal then of Bush Sr. and Clinton during their terms in office was to develop foreign policy objectives that would support consensus rather than accelerate fragmentation inside America's sphere of influence.^[18]

Scholars have pointed to materialist and ideational reasons for the end of the Cold War. Materialists emphasize Soviet economic difficulties (such as economic stagnation and sovereign debt),^[19] whereas ideationalists argue that the worldviews and personas of Gorbachev and Reagan mattered. Ideationalists point to a Gorbachev and Reagan's mutual desire to abolish nuclear weapons,^[20] as well as Gorbachev's perceptions of the legitimate ends and means of foreign policy.^[21]

Countries such as the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Slovakia experiencedeconomic reconstruction, growth and fast integration withEU andNATO while some of their eastern neighbors created hybrids of free market oligarchy system, post-communist corrupted administration and dictatorship.

Russia and some otherSoviet successor states faced a chaotic and harsh transition from a command economy tofree market capitalism following thedissolution of the Soviet Union. A large percentage of the population lived in poverty,GDP growth declined, and life expectancy dropped sharply. Living conditions also declined in some other parts of the formerEastern bloc.

The post–Cold War era saw a period of unprecedented prosperity in the West, especially in the United States, and a wave of democratization throughout Latin America, Africa, and Central, South-East and Eastern Europe.

SociologistImmanuel Wallerstein expresses a less triumphalist view, arguing that the end of the Cold War is a prelude to the breakdown ofPax Americana. In his essay "Pax Americana is Over", Wallerstein argues, "The collapse of communism in effect signified the collapse of liberalism, removing the only ideological justification behind US hegemony, a justification tacitly supported by liberalism's ostensibleideological opponent".^[22]

Space exploration has petered out in both the United States and Russia without the competitive pressure of thespace race.Military decorations have become more common, as they were created, and bestowed, by the major powers during the near 50 years of undeclared hostilities.

• January 20, 1985 –Ronald Reagan issworn in for a second term asPresident of the United States.
• March 10, 1985 –General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet UnionKonstantin Chernenko dies.
• March 11, 1985 –Soviet Politburo memberMikhail Gorbachev becomes the General Secretary of the Communist Party.
• March 24, 1985 – MajorArthur D. Nicholson, aUS ArmyMilitary Intelligence officer is shot to death by a Soviet sentry inEast Germany. He is listed as the last US casualty in the Cold War.

• February 22–25, 1986 –People Power Revolution successfully overthrowsFerdinand Marcos in thePhilippines.
• April 26, 1986 – TheChernobyl Disaster.
• October 11–12 – TheReykjavik summit.

• January 1987 – Gorbachev introduces the policy ofdemokratizatsiya in the Soviet Union.
• January 27, 1987 – The United States recognizes the independence ofMongolia and establishes diplomatic relations.^[23]
• March 4, 1987 – In a televised address, Reagan takes full responsibility for theIran–Contra affair.
• June 12, 1987 – "Tear down this wall" speech by Reagan inWest Berlin.
• June 29, 1987 –June Struggle inSouth Korea.
• July 15, 1987 – TheRepublic of China ends 38 years ofmartial law.
• November 15, 1987 –Brașov rebellion inRomania.
• December 8, 1987 – TheIntermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty is signed inWashington, D.C.

• February 12, 1988 – Hostile rendezvous off coast ofCrimea inBlack Sea when theSoviet frigateBezzavetnyyrammed the American missile cruiserUSSYorktown.^[24]
• February 20, 1988 – The regional soviet ofNagorno-Karabakh inAzerbaijan decides to be part ofArmenia, but the Kremlin refuses to do it.^[25] The subsequentFirst Nagorno-Karabakh War would be the first of the internal conflicts in the Soviet Union that would become thepost-Soviet separatist conflicts.
• August 8, 1988 –8888 Uprising inBurma.
• August 17, 1988 –Pakistani presidentMuhammad Zia-ul-Haq dies.
• August 20, 1988 – End ofIran–Iraq War.
• September 17, 1988 –Summer Olympics inSeoul,South Korea; first time since1976 that bothSoviet Union and theUnited States participate; it is also the last Olympic Games for the Soviet Union and its satellite states.
• October 5, 1988 –Chilean dictatorAugusto Pinochet is defeated in anationwide referendum.
• December 21, 1988 –Pan Am Flight 103 bombing.

• January 7, 1989 –Japanese EmperorHirohito dies, he was succeeded by his sonAkihito.
• January 20, 1989 –George H. W. Bushbecomes president of the United States.
• February 1989 – End ofSoviet–Afghan War; continuation ofinternal conflict without Soviet troops.
• June 3, 1989 –Iranian leaderAyatollah Khomeini dies.
• June 4, 1989 –Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 inBeijing,People's Republic of China.
• June 4, 1989 –Solidarity's decisive victory in the first partially free parliamentary elections in post-warPoland sparks off a succession of anti-communistRevolutions of 1989 across Central, later South-East and Eastern Europe.
• August 14, 1989 –South African presidentPieter Willem Botha resigns in reaction to the implementation ofTripartite Accord.
• August 19, 1989 – The opening of the border gate between Austria and Hungary at thePan-European Picnic set in motion a chain reaction, at the end of which there was no longer aGDR and theEastern Bloc had disintegrated.
• August 23, 1989 –Soviet Politburo memberAlexander Yakovlev denounces the secret protocols of theHitler-Stalin Pact.
• August 24, 1989 –Tadeusz Mazowiecki becomes thePrime Minister of Poland forming the first non-communist government in theCommunist bloc.
• October 23, 1989 –End of Communism in Hungary.
• November 9, 1989 –Fall of the Berlin Wall.
• November 24, 1989 –Communist Party of Czechoslovakia leaders resign during theVelvet Revolution, effectively ending one-party rule in that country.
• December 2–3, 1989 –Malta Summit between Bush and Gorbachev, who said, "I assured the President of the United States that I will never start a hot war against the USA".
• December 10, 1989 –Czechoslovak PresidentGustáv Husák's resignation amounted to the fall of the Communist regime in Czechoslovakia, leaving Ceaușescu's Romania as the only remaining hard-line Communist regime in the Warsaw Pact.^[26][27][28]
• December 25, 1989 – Execution ofNicolae Ceauşescu during theRomanian Revolution againstCommunist Party rule.
• December 29, 1989 –Václav Havel assumes the presidency of Czechoslovakia at the conclusion ofVelvet Revolution.
• December 30, 1989 – TheSecuritate, the secret police of Romania, is dissolved.

• January 13, 1990 – TheStasi, thesecret police ofEast Germany, is dissolved.
• January 22, 1990 – theLeague of Communists of Yugoslavia, the ruling party of theSocialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, is dissolved during its congress, ending the one party system in the country.
• February 1, 1990 –StB, the secret police of Czechoslovakia is dissolved.
• March 15, 1990 – Inauguration of Gorbachev as the firstPresident of the Soviet Union.
• April 12, 1990 – TheSocialist Republic of Slovenia within Yugoslavia holds its first multi-party elections.
• April 22–23 and May 6–7, 1990 – theSocialist Republic of Croatia within Yugoslavia holds its first multi-party elections.
• April 25, 1990 –Violeta Chamorro is sworn in as president ofNicaragua, ending theSandinista rule and theContras insurgency.
• May 22, 1990 –South andNorth Yemens are unified.
• June 8, 1990 – theMessage from Turnberry, described as the "first official recognition of the end of the Cold War", is issued.
• July 5–6, 1990 – NATO holds its11th summit in London.
• July 13, 1990 – The28th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union announces the end of itsmonopoly of power.
• August 2, 1990 – Beginning ofGulf War.
• September 9, 1990 –Helsinki Summit between Bush and Gorbachev.
• September 12, 1990 – TheTreaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany is signed inMoscow.
• October 3, 1990 – Officialreunification of Germany.
• November 6, 1990 –Hungary become the firstSoviet Bloc country to join theCouncil of Europe.
• November 11, 1990 – TheSocialist Republic of Macedonia within Yugoslavia holds its first multi-party elections.
• November 18, 1990 – TheSocialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina within Yugoslavia holds its first multiparty elections.
• November 19, 1990 –NATO andWarsaw Pact sign theTreaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe.
• November 28, 1990 –Margaret Thatcherfalls from power asUK Prime Minister;John Major takes office.
• December 9, 1990 – TheSocialist Republic of Montenegro within Yugoslavia holds its first multi-party elections.
• December 9–23, 1990 – TheSocialist Republic of Serbia within Yugoslavia holds its first multi-party elections.
• December 22, 1990 –Lech Wałęsa becomespresident of Poland;Polish government-in-exile ends.
• December 23, 1990 – Slovenia holds anindependence referendum resulting in a majority of Slovenians voting in favour of Slovenia seeking independence from Yugoslavia.

• January 1991 – Money transfers from theCzech Republic budget to theSlovak Republic are stopped, beginning the process that would lead toVelvet Divorce.
• February 28, 1991 – End of Gulf War.
• March 3, 1991 –Estonia andLatvia hold an independence referendum with a majority voting to restore independence.
• March 31, 1991 – Georgia holds anindependence referendum resulting in a majority of Georgians voting in favour of Georgia becoming independent from the Soviet Union.
• May 1, 1991 – The Republic of China abolishes theTemporary Provisions against the Communist Rebellion which was in place during theChinese Civil War.
• May 19, 1991 – Croatia holds anindependence referendum resulting in a majority of Croatians voting in favour of Croatia seeking independence from Yugoslavia.
• May 24, 1991 – End ofEritrean War of Independence inEthiopia.
• June 27, 1991 –Beginning of theYugoslav Wars inSlovenia.
• June 28, 1991 –Comecon is dissolved.
• July 1, 1991 – The Warsaw Pact is dissolved.
• July 10, 1991 –Boris Yeltsin becomes president ofRussia.
• July 31, 1991 – Ratification ofSTART I treaty between United States and the Soviet Union.
• August 19, 1991 – Start of the Soviet Unioncoup d'état attempt.
• August 21, 1991 – The Soviet Union coup d'état is dissolved.
• August 24, 1991 – Gorbachev resigns from the post ofGeneral Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
• September 6, 1991 – The Soviet Union recognizes the independence of theBaltic States.
• September 8, 1991 – The Republic of Macedonia holds anindependence referendum resulting in a majority of Macedonians voting in favour of Macedonia seeking independence from Yugoslavia.
• September 21, 1991 – Armenia holds anindependence referendum resulting in a majority of Armenians voting in favour of Armenia becoming independent from the Soviet Union.
• October 26, 1991 – Turkmenistan holds anindependence referendum resulting in a majority of voting in favour of Turkmenistan becoming independent of the Soviet Union.
• November 6, 1991 – TheCommunist Party of the Soviet Union and the SovietKGB are dissolved.
• November 7–8, 1991 – NATO holds its12th summit in Rome.
• December 8, 1991 – TheBelavezha Accords are signed by the leaders ofRussian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic,Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic andByelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, sealing the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the creation of theCIS.
• December 25, 1991 – Gorbachev resigns asPresident of the Soviet Union and the post is abolished; the redSoviet flag is lowered from theMoscow Kremlin, and in its place theflag of the Russian Federation is raised.
• December 26, 1991 – The Supreme Sovietdissolves the Soviet Union.

• History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)
• History of the United States (1980–1991)
• Post-Communism
• Reagan Doctrine
• Solidarity
• Timeline of events in the Cold War

• Ball, S. J.The Cold War: An International History, 1947–1991 (1998). British perspective
• Beschloss, Michael, and Strobe Talbott.At the Highest Levels:The Inside Story of the End of the Cold War (1993)
• Braithwaite, Rodric et al. "Could the Soviet Union Have Survived? We ask four historians whether the demise of one of the 20th century's superpowers was as inevitable as it now seems."History Today (Oct 2020) 70#10 pp 8–10 [online].
• Brooks, Stephen G., and William C. Wohlforth. "Power, globalization, and the end of the Cold War: Reevaluating a landmark case for ideas."International Security 25.3 (2001): 5-53. [online]
• Engel, Jeffrey A.When the World Seemed New: George H. W. Bush and the End of the Cold War (2017)
• Gaddis, John Lewis.The Cold War: A New History (2005)online
• Gaddis, John Lewis.The United States and the End of the Cold War: Implications, Reconsiderations, Provocations (1992)online
• Garthoff, Raymond.The Great Transition: American-Soviet Relations and the End of the Cold War (1994)online
• Goertz, Gary and Jack S. Levy, eds.Causal explanations, necessary conditions, and case studies: World War I and the End of the Cold War (2005), 10 essays from political scientists;online
• Hogan, Michael, ed.The End of the Cold War. Its Meaning and Implications (1992) articles fromDiplomatic History
• Kalinovsky, Artemy M. "New Histories of the End of the Cold War and the Late Twentieth Century."Contemporary European History 27.1 (2018): 149–161.online
• Kegley Jr, Charles W. "How did the cold war die? Principles for an autopsy."Mershon International Studies Review 38.Supplement_1 (1994): 11–41.
• Kenney, Padraic.1989: Democratic Revolutions at the Cold War's End: A Brief History with Documents (2009) covers Poland, the Philippines, Chile, South Africa, Ukraine, and China
• Leffler, Melvyn P.For the Soul of Mankind: The United States, the Soviet Union, and the Cold War (2007) pp 338–450.
• Mann, James.The Rebellion of Ronald Reagan: A History of the End of the Cold War (2010). popular
• Matlock, Jack F.Autopsy on an Empire (1995)online by US ambassador to Moscow
• Matlock, Jack F.Reagan and Gorbachev : how the Cold War ended (2004)online
• Powaski, Ronald E.The Cold War: The United States and the Soviet Union, 1917–1991 (1998)
• Romero, Federico. "Cold War historiography at the crossroads."Cold War History 14.4 (2014): 685–703.online
• Shultz, George P.Turmoil and Triumph: My Years as Secretary of State (1993), a primary source
• Westad, Odd Arne.The Cold War: A World History (2017) pp 527–629
• Wilson, James Graham.The Triumph of Improvisation: Gorbachev's Adaptability, Reagan's Engagement, and the End of the Cold War (2014)
• Wohlforth, William C. "Realism and the End of the Cold War."International Security 19.3 (1994): 91–129.online
• Zubok, Vladislav M. "Gorbachev and the End of the Cold War: Perspectives on History and Personality,"Cold War History (2002) 2:2, 61–100, DOI: 10.1080/713999954
• Zubok, Vladislav M.A failed empire: the Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev (2009).online

• Cold War International History Project: The End of the Cold War
• Cold War Files: The End of the Cold War
• Jeffrey W. Knopf "Did Reagan Win the Cold War?"
• Cold War Air Museum: Aircraft from this period of the Cold War

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