Cocaleros (Spanish pronunciation:[kokaˈleɾo]) are thecoca leaf growers ofBolivia,Colombia, andPeru. In response toU.S.-funded attempts to eradicate and fumigate coca crops in theChapare region of Bolivia, cocaleros joined with other grassroots indigenous organizations in the country, such asunionized mine workers and peasants to contest the government.Evo Morales, who becamepresident of Bolivia in 2006, was a leader of the cocalero movement in that country.[1]
Coca has been cultivated for 8,000 years by indigenous people in the Andes for medicinal and religious reasons. As a stimulant, it is helpful in overcomingaltitude sickness in the high Andes, and can be chewed and made into tea. Other medicinal uses include pain relief, staunching blood flow, combating malaria, ulcers, asthma and improving digestion.[2] It is also configured in many religious ceremonies as offerings toApus,Inti, and thePachamama and as a method of divination.
It was introduced toEurope in the 16th century, but it was not until the mid-19th century that it began to be refined intococaine. Its cultivation was prohibited by Bolivian law, except in the region ofYungas despite its affinity to the climate and land of theChapare region. Coca crops in Chapare were thus targeted for eradication. Because coca and cocaine were being trafficked up through South and Central America to the United States, coca production in South America came to the attention of theU.S. Drug Enforcement Administration, which, subsequently underPlan Colombia, began to fund eradication efforts across the continent. Plan Colombia sent hundreds of millions of dollars in military aid, training and equipment to Central and South American countries, thereby militarizing the region and local and national governments' responses to coca production. Cocaleros who make their livings growing and selling coca were the most negatively affected by the policies, as their crops were burned, ripped up, or sprayed with herbicide.[3]
Coca producers are left with few alternatives for subsistence, and therefore call for the legalization of coca. Also the anti-drug militancy has targeted left wing guerrilla groups like theRevolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia and gangs who are involved in the drug trade. In 1987,UMOPAR, La Unidad Móvil Policial para Áreas Rurales, was formed as an anti-narcotic counterinsurgency force in Bolivia. It received training and monetary aid from the AmericanDrug Enforcement Administration and led raids on coca fields and suppressed cocalero organizing.[4]
Bolivia is a multiethnic, majority indigenous country in South America. Among over three dozen Amerindian nations, the most prominent are theQuechuas,Aymaras,Chiquitanos,Guaranís, and Mojeños. White and mestizo Bolivians have traditionally held power in the country since the time of colonization. For hundreds of years indigenous people were employed by mines that exported the country's mineral wealth abroad, first toSpain and then to other parts of quickly industrializing countries such as the U.S. and Western Europe following independence in 1809.[5]
In the 1980s, the Bolivian Mining Corporation closed many mines, which forced many former miners into coca production. Not only did coca farming provide a living for the ex-miners, but the turn from wage labor to farming allowed for more political organization. Many of the organizations formed during this time period such as theConfederation of Indigenous Peoples of Bolivia later joined forces with theConfederación Sindical Única de Trabajadores Campesinos de Bolivia and theConfederación Sindical de Colonizadores de Bolivia to form the beginnings of theMovimiento al Socialismo, the Party of Evo Morales. Among major mobilizations since its inception, the Confederation of Indigenous Peoples of Bolivia has played a part in marches for land reform, indigenous autonomy, and for a plurinational state.[6]
Movement for Socialism - Political Instrument for the Sovereignty of the Peoples (In SpanishMovimiento al Socialismo-Instrumento Político por la Soberanía de los Pueblos) orMAS rose as a left-wing populist political organization to support the preservation of the coca plant and the cocalero economy. It grew out of and gained support from the indigenous grassroots organizations that began to coalesce following the closure of mines and the criminalization of the coca plant and indigenous cocaleros.[7]
Carlos Mesa, the president of Bolivia from October 17, 2003 to June 6, 2005, presided over several controversies that mobilized the indigenous grassroots organizations against the government, notably theBolivian gas conflict which drew momentum from theCochabamba Water Wars. Both of these conflicts centered on disputes between the indigenous population and the government over control of resources. Mesa hastily resigned, opening up the country for elections. The momentum of the MAS party led to the successful election ofEvo Morales, a cocalero union organizer, with a 54% absolute majority.[8]
In the lead up to the2025 Bolivian general election, Evo Morales allied with local Cocaleros known as the "Six Federations" in Chapare province, where he was based in a fortified compound to direct protests against Luis Arce in protest of the Bolivian state ruling that Morales could not run. The Cocaleros supported Morales in this endeavour and pledged to wage a guerrilla war in support of Morales if right-wing candidates win and attempt to arrest him.
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